Students have different intellectual capacities and
learning styles that favour or hinder knowledge accumulation. As a result,
teachers are interested in ways to effectively cause students to understand
better and learn. Teachers want to bring about better understanding of the
material he/she wants to communicate. It is the responsibility of the
educational institutions and teachers to seek more effective ways of teaching
in order to meet individual’s and society’s expectations from education.
Improving teaching methods may help an institution meet its goal of achieving
improved learning outcomes
Teaching methods can
either be inductive or deductive or some combination of the two.
The inductive teaching
method or process goes from the specific to the general and may be based on
specific experiments or experimental learning exercises. Deductive teaching
method progresses from general concept to the specific use or application.
These methods are used particularly in reasoning i.e. logic and problem
solving. To reason is to draw inferences appropriate to the situation.
Inferences are classified as either deductive or inductive.
For example, “Ram must be in either the museum or in the cafeteria.” He is
not in the cafeteria; therefore he is must be in the museum. This is deductive
reasoning.
As an example of
inductive reasoning, we have, “Previous accidents of this sort were caused by
instrument failure, and therefore, this accident was caused by instrument
failure.
The most significant
difference between these forms of reasoning is that in the deductive case the
truth of the premises (conditions) guarantees the truth of the conclusion,
whereas in the inductive case, the truth of the premises lends support to the
conclusion without giving absolute assurance. Inductive arguments intend to
support their conclusions only to some degree; the premises do not necessitate
the
conclusion.
Inductive reasoning is
common in science, where data is collected and tentative models are developed
to describe and predict future behaivour, until the appearance of the anomalous
data forces the model to be revised.
Deductive reasoning is
common in mathematics and logic, where elaborate structures of irrefutable
theorems are built up from a small set of basic axioms and rules. However
examples exist where teaching by inductive method bears fruit.
EXAMPLES: (INDUCTIVE
METHOD):
1)
MATHEMATICS:
A) Ask
students to draw a few sets of parallel lines with two lines in each set. Let
them construct and measure the corresponding and alternate angles in each case.
They will find them equal in all cases. This conclusion in a good number of
cases will enable them to generalize that “corresponding angles are equal;
alternate angles are equal.” This is a case where equality of corresponding and
alternate angles in a certain sets of parallel lines (specific) helps us to
generalize the conclusion. Thus this is an example of inductive method.
B) Ask
students to construct a few triangles. Let them measure and sum up the interior
angles in each case. The sum will be same (= 180°) in each case. Thus they can
conclude that “the sum of the interior angles of a triangle = 180°). This is a
case where equality of sum of interior angles of a triangle (=180°) in certain
number of triangles leads us to generalize the conclusion. Thus this is an
example of inductive method.
C) Let
the mathematical statement be, S (n): 1 + 2 + ……+ n =. It can be proved that if
the result holds for n = 1, and it is assumed to be true for n = k, then it is
true for n = k +1 and thus for all natural numbers n. Here, the given result is
true for a specific value of n = 1 and we prove it to be true for a general
value of n which leads to the generalization of the conclusion. Thus it is an
example of inductive method.
2) LANGUAGES:
A)
Development of a story from a given outline is an example of inductive method
because the student may develop any story from the given outline (specific)
based on his/her imagination.
B)
Writing a letter to his father describing a particular event of his life, is an
example of inductive method because, the event and the language (use of words)
differs from student to student (general) while the format of the letter is
always specific as it always starts with “Respected Father”, then is the body
of the letter and finally the closure is done by “your (loving) son/daughter”
followed by name.
C)
Writing an essay on “the book I like most”, is an example of inductive method
because while the format of essay i.e., introduction followed by body and
finally, the conclusion, always remains the same (specific) but the book and
the reasons for liking it and the words used differ from individual to
individual (general).
3) CHEMISTRY:
Elements in the periodic
table are divided into several groups which have similar properties and
electronic configurations etc. Thus if the properties of individual elements in
a group like chemical reactivity, melting point, boiling point, ionization
energy etc. are known the properties of the elements of the entire group can be
predicted with very few exceptions. Thus it proceeds from specific to general
and so is an example of inductive method.
4) PHYSICS:
By noting the amount of
work done in lifting a body from the ground to a height h, we can derive the
relation between the potential energy of the body (P.E.) with the height
attained by it from the ground, which is P.E. = m g h, where, g = 9.8
m/sec2, the acceleration due to gravity acting vertically downwards. The height
being specific, it proceeds from specific to general and so is an example of
inductive method.
5) BIOLOGY:
a)
Morphological and anatomical characteristics can be studied in particular
plants with prominent characteristics, such as Lemma (Duckweed), Eichhornia
(water hyacinth) hydrilla, Opuntia, Accacia, Calotropis (AK); for understanding
the ecological adaptations of plants into three groups on the basis of plant
water relationships as Aquatic (Hydrophytes), Terrestrial (Xerophytes,
Mesophytes) and Halophytes. As it proceeds from particular to general,
therefore it is an example of inductive method.
b) The
children are explained the consequences of depletion of resources like coal,
petroleum and then let them reason the need for conservation of resources and
methods for it. As it proceeds from particular to general, therefore it is an
example of inductive method.
6) ECONOMICS:
By studying the factors
affecting inflation which are specific, like the supply and demand of goods in
an economy etc, we can predict as to whether the rate of inflation will rise or
fall during a given period of time (general) which ultimately gives an estimate
of the cost of living in an economy and calculating the cost of living index
number, the govt. is able to decide regarding the extent of increase in the
dearness allowance (DA).
EXAMPLES: (DEDUCTIVE
METHOD):
1)
MATHEMATICS:
A) We
have an axiom that “two distinct lines in a plane are either parallel or
intersecting” (general). Based on this axiom, the corresponding theorem
is: “Two distinct lines in a plane cannot have more than one point in common.”
(Specific). Thus this is an example of deductive method.
B)
We have a formula for the solution of the linear simultaneous equations as
and(general). The students find the solutions of some problems like
based on this formula (specific). Thus this is an example of deductive
method.
2) LANGUAGES:
A) Writing a
summary of a passage known as précis writing is an example of deductive method
because for the given passage (general) we always have certain key points which
are included in the summary (specific).
B)
Explaining a poem in prose with reference to context is an example of deductive
method because the poem being given (general), we always try to pen the specific
idea or thought of the poet in prose. Hence it is an example of deductive
method.
3) CHEMISTRY:
The experiment of salt
analysis is an example of deductive method because here, we firstly perform the
preliminary test also known as dry test (general) to ascertain as to which
group it may probably belong. The group being ascertained, we proceed to
perform specific confirmatory test to identify the particular salt. Thus it
proceeds from general to specific.
4) PHYSICS:
By using the properties
of semi-conductors (general), we make several instruments like diodes and
transistors which have (specific) uses like the light emitting diode (LED) is
used in remote control instruments; the photo diode is used for counting the
exact number of people present in a stadium at a particular interval of time.
As it proceeds from general to specific thus this is an example of deductive
method.
5) BIOLOGY:
a)
This method can best be made use of in the study and understanding of diseases
where the symptoms and precautionary measures of various diseases caused by
bacteria, virus and other organisms can be explained and children are asked to
identify the same on the basis of their understanding.
b)
Classification of animals into chordate and Non-Chordate on the basis of their
differences. Since, the differences are general in nature, and the
classification as mentioned above is particular in nature, it proceeds from
general to particular. Thus this is an example of deductive method.
The examples cited above
are not exhaustive. Many more examples can be given and from variety of
subjects as well.
Logic and Problem
solving are two more areas where these methods find extensive usage.
The major task of logic
is to establish a systematic way of deducing the logical consequences of a set
of sentences. In order to accomplish this, it is necessary first to identify or
characterize the logical consequences of a set of sentences. The procedures for
deriving conclusions from a set of sentences then need be examined to verify
that all logical consequences and only these are deducible from that set.
From its very beginning,
the field of logic has been occupied with arguments, in which certain
statements, the premises, are asserted in order to support some other
statement, the conclusion. If the premises are intended to provide conclusive
support for conclusion, the argument is a deductive one. If the premises are
intended to support the conclusion, only to a lesser degree, the argument is
called inductive.
A logically correct argument
is termed “valid”, while an acceptable inductive argument is called cogent. The
notion of support is further elucidated by the observation that the truth of
the premises of a valid deductive argument necessitates the truth of the
conclusion. It is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion
false. On the other hand, the truth of the premises of a cogent argument
confers only a probability of truth on its conclusion: it is possible for the
premises to be true but the conclusion is false. For example let the premise
is: “All teachers are scholars” and the conclusion be: “There are some scholars
who are not teachers”. Let the premise be true then obviously, the conclusion
is false. Hence it is a cogent. Again let the premise is “no policeman is a
thief” and the conclusion be “no thief is a policeman”. Let the premise be true
then the conclusion is also seen to be true. Thus it is a valid (deductive)
argument.
Problem solving is
another area where inductive and deductive processes may be used.
In inductive thinking,
one considers a number of particular or specific items of information to
develop more inclusive or general conceptions. After aspirin was synthesized,
for example, some people who swallowed the substance reported that it relieved
their particular headaches. Through induction the reports of these specific
individuals were the basis for developing a more inclusive notion: “aspirin may
be helpful in relieving headaches in general”.
“Deduction” is reasoning
from general propositions –or hypotheses-to more specific instances or
statements. Thus, after the general hypothesis about the effectiveness of
aspirin had been put forward, physicians began to apply it to specific, newly
encountered headache cases. The deduction was that, if aspirin is generally
useful in managing pains in the head, it might also be helpful in easing pains
elsewhere in the body.
Although a person may
deliberately choose to use induction or deduction, people typically shift from
one to the other depending on the exigencies of the reasoning process.
Finally let compare
these two methods.
|
INDUCTIVE METHOD
|
DEDUCTIVE METHOD
|
|
It gives new knowledge
It is a method of
discovery.
It is a method of
teaching.
Child acquires
firsthand knowledge and information by actual observation.
It is a slow process.
It trains the mind and
gives self confidence and initiative.
It is full of
activity.
It is an upward
process of thought and leads to principles.
|
It does not give any
new knowledge.
It is a method of
verification.
It is the method of
instruction.
Child gets ready made
information and makes use of it.
It is quick process.
It encourages
dependence on other sources.
There is less scope of
activity in it.
It is a downward
process of thought and leads to useful results.
|
To conclude, we can say
that inductive method is a predecessor of deductive method. Any loss of time
due to slowness of this method is made up through the quick and time saving
process of deduction. Deduction is a process particularly suitable for a final
statement and induction is most suitable for exploration of new fields.
Probability in induction is raised to certainty in deduction. The happy
combination of the two is most appropriate and desirable.
There are two major
parts of the process of learning of a topic: establishment of formula or
principles and application of that formula or those principles. The former is
the work of induction and the latter is the work of deduction. Therefore,
friends, “Always understand inductively and apply deductively” and a
good and effective teacher is he who understands this delicate balance between
the two. Thus: “his teaching should begin with induction and end in
deduction.”
References
References
Advanced method of teaching – s.k
kochhar
The principles and methods of
teaching – Bhatia and Bhatia
Education technology – R.k Sharma
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