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Monday, April 30, 2012

INTRODUCTION TO THEORIES OF KNOWLEDGE

The branch of philosophy that studies the nature, source and limits of knowledge is known as epistemology. It is the theory of knowledge.The basic questions of epistemology can be put down in the following manner: 1. What is the nature of knowledge: this question asks what does it mean to say that someone knows. How do we distinguish between cases in which someone knows something and cases in which someone does not know something? 2. How do we acquire knowledge: here we try to find the sources and origin of our knowledge. How can we use our various faculties like reason, senses, or other resources to acquire knowledge? We try to find out how we gain the concepts we use in our thought. 3. What is the scope of knowledge or what can we know: this query tries to answer whether there are limits to what we can know. For example, whether there are things which are unknowable for us. Is it possible that we do not know as much as we think we do? This Unit will introduce you to the second question of epistemology, that is, how we acquire knowledge. ORIGIN AND SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE There are many ways that one might come to know something or acquire knowledge. We acquire our knowledge of empirical facts about physical world through perception, that is, by using our senses. Science is the best example of empirical knowledge with its collection of data. Our everyday knowledge also mostly comes from the senses, as we look, listen, smell, touch, and taste the various objects in our environments. But knowledge is not simply made up of sensations. All knowledge requires some amount of reasoning. Data collected by scientists must be analyzed before knowledge is yielded, and we draw inferences based on what is given to us by our senses. In case of knowledge of abstract or non-empirical facts one has to rely exclusively upon reasoning. Some philosophers regard memory also as a source of knowledge. In memory we come to know something which we knew in the past but which is no longer present to our senses now. Knowledge can also be acquired through testimony, that is, from the words of some trusted person or books that can be believed to be true. THEORIES OF KNOWLEDGE There are four main theories of origin of knowledge. 1. Rationalism: It is a theory that regards reason as the chief source of knowledge. Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz are advocates of Rationalism. 2. Empiricism: It is a theory that regards experience as the source of knowledge. Locke and Hume are the chief exponents of this theory. 3. Criticism: It is also called the Critical theory of knowledge. It is advocated by Kant. He advocated the view that both experience and reason together yield knowledge. 4. Intuitionism: It regards intuition as the source of knowledge. Henry Bergson is an advocate of this theory. RATIONALISM Rationalism is the theory of knowledge according to which reason or intellect is the main source of knowledge. Rationalism rejects all knowledge derived from sense experience. Socrates and Plato are the earliest rationalist philosophers. According to them, true knowledge originates from reason. The Rationalism that was advocated by these two philosophers became articulate in the philosophy of Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz. However, the rationalist philosophers differ among themselves regarding how much importance should be given to experience in yielding knowledge. Some rationalists regard experience as wholly misleading while others attach some values to it. They say that the knowledge given by experience is confused knowledge. But inspite of their differences they all agree that reason alone can give us certain and perfect knowledge. Rationalism is also called a priori theory of knowledge as according to this theory, knowledge is prior or independent of experience. Standpoints of Different Philosophers RENE DESCARTES (1596-1650) As it has been mentioned above, modern rationalism begins in the philosophy of Descartes. Descartes is considered as the father of modern western philosophy. Descartes was a mathematician and according to him, the perfect form of knowledge can be gained only through mathematical demonstration. Such demonstration consists in starting with self-evident principles and deducing other truths from these self-evident principles. Descartes divides ideas into three kinds: adventitious, factitious and innate. Adventitious ideas are imposed on the mind from without. They are not clear and distinct. Factitious ideas are created by the mind by the conjunction of ideas. These are created by imagination. They are also not clear and distinct. But innate ideas are clear and distinct. They are implanted in the mind by God at the time of birth. According to Descartes, knowledge is given by clear vision of intellect or reason. Descartes calls it intuition. For him intuition is the undoubted, immediate apprehension of self-evident truth by reason. God imprints certain innate ideas in the mind at the time of birth. They are self-evident. The idea of causality, infinity, eternity, perfect Being or God and the like are innate ideas. They are clear and distinct. Clearness and distinctness is the test of their truth. The development of true knowledge consists in the logical deduction of other truths from these principles. Thus Descartes applies mathematical method to philosophy. Therefore, Paulsen has characterized Descartes’ philosophy as Mathematical Rationalism. According to Descartes, certainty is the criterion of truth. Therefore, he rejects knowledge derived from sensation. He starts with universal doubt. He doubts all knowledge including mathematical demonstration. One can doubt everything, but in doubting one cannot doubt the doubting itself. To doubt is to think. To think is to exist. “Cogito ergo sum”. “I think, therefore, I exist”. Once he establishes the existence of the self, Descartes moves to prove the existence of the external world. Each one of us has the innate ideas of which God is the most important. From this idea of God Descartes proves the existence of God. The idea of God is the idea of infinite Being. But I being finite cannot produce this idea of infinite Being in me. Another human being cannot produce it, as he too is finite. This idea also cannot be produced by addition of finite beings and things as the sum of finite is also finite. So, this idea of the infinite Being must be produced by that which itself is infinite, that is, by God himself. So God must exist. Now God is benevolent and truthful. As such he cannot deceive us. And we have conviction that external things exist. So, they must exist. For otherwise God will turn deceitful. Descartes thus proves the existence of the external world. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1. Theory of origin of knowledge is studied in the branch of philosophy known as Metaphysics. True/ False 2. Plato’s philosophy cannot be claimed to be rational in nature. True/ False 3. A priori means ‘knowledge is after experience’. True/ False 4. Innate ideas are implanted in the mind at the time of birth by God. True/ False 5. What are three kinds of ideas according to Descartes? 6. What is the criterion of truth according to Descartes? BENEDICT SPINOZA (1632-1677) Spinoza gave a developed form to the rationalism initiated by Descartes in modern western philosophy. Like Descartes, Spinoza had immense faith in reason. Like a true rationalist Spinoza holds that we can know truth through reason. Reason can give us knowledge of reality because reality itself is rational in nature. According to Spinoza, God himself creates the world rationally and intuition is the realization of true knowledge. It is intuition by which one knows the necessary relations between different phenomena. According to Spinoza, the goal of philosophy is to get complete knowledge of things. He holds that this is possible only by clear and distinct thinking. Like Descartes he believed that if we start with self-evident principles and prove the steps involved in the argument then we will be able to reach certain and universal knowledge. Spinoza uses geometrical method to philosophy to arrive at certain truths. His method is geometrical because he lays down certain definitions, axioms and postulates and from these principles he deduces propositions with proofs. Spinoza starts with the innate principle or idea of God or Substance. According to him, a substance is that which exists by itself and is conceived by itself. This substance is infinite and it has infinite attributes. Out of these attributes we can know only thought and extension which themselves are infinite. They are parallel and co-exist with each other. These attributes are modified into infinite intelligence and will and infinite extension and motion. They are the infinite modes of Substance. Infinite intellect and will are again modified into finite intellects and will or finite minds. Infinite extension and motion are modified into finite extension and motion or finite objects. Thus finite minds and finite objects are modification of the one and same Substance. 1. The method in philosophy used by Spinoza is: a. mathematical b. geometrical 2. According to Spinoza, God has a. two attributes b. three attributes c. infinite number of attributes GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ (1646-1716) Leibniz was a famous mathematician. He held that the world has logical and mathematical order. Laws that govern this world order are rational. Therefore, the world can only be comprehended by reason. Leibniz’s theory of knowledge is based on his metaphysical theory. Leibniz established that the world is composed of dynamic units or immaterial, unextended, simple units of force. These are called monads. According to him, monads are windowless and hence they cannot receive any knowledge from any external source. Leibniz holds that we cannot derive any invariable law concerning the functions of the universe on the basis of sense experience. Knowledge is simply brought out and manifested by experience. He holds that nothing can exist in the intellect that did not first exist in sensation- except, he adds, the intellect itself. The rational laws governing the world are to be found only in reason because the world has been created by God on the basis of reason. EMPIRICISM JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704) Locke revolted against Descartes’ rationalism and criticised his theory of innate ideas. he criticised the theory of innate ideas on the following grounds: 1. If there were innate ideas they should be equally present in all minds. But there are no such innate ideas which are equally present in all minds. For example, we do not find that savages, children or idiots are concious of so called innate ideas like causality, infinity, eternity etc. 2. If there were innate ideas they should be the same in all minds. But the ideas of morality, God and the like are not the same in all minds. Different ideas are held in different socities. Sometimes the same society may hold different view at different times or ages. 3. Even if there were the same ideas in all minds, it would not make them innate on that account. Everybody has the same idea of fire. But all of us get the idea of fire from experience. It is not an innate idea. Universality of an idea does not prove the innateness of it. According to Locke, at the time of birth the mind is a tabula rasa or blank sheet. Mind is a clean slate in the beginning on which expereince writes. According to him, ‘there is nothing in the intellect that was not previously in the senses’. Mind receives ideas from expereince. This expereince is two fold: sensation and reflection. Sensation is the source of our knowledge of the sensory qualities of objects. Reflection is the source of our internal states of mind, such as, perception, belief, thought and reasoning etc. We get our first ideas from sensation and then we reflect upon it. Sensations are the materials on which the mind thinks. According to Locke, the mind is passive in receiving ideas. But it is active in comparing and combining these ideas. The ideas that are passively received by the mind are the simple ideas. these simple ideas are combined by the active power of the mind into varieties to make complex ideas. Locke says that there are four simple ideas: Firstly, the ideas which enter our minds through one sense organ only. For example, colour, sound, taste, heat, cold solidity. Secondly, the ideas which enter the mind by more than one sense organ. For example, space, figure, rest, motion which enter through both sight and touch. Thirdly, the ideas that are received by reflection only. For example, perception, retention, discerning, comparing, compounding, naming and abstracting. Fourthly, the ideas that we receive both through sensation and reflection. For example, pleasure, pain, power, existence, unity, succession and duration. According to Locke, the power that an object has to produce idea in our minds is a quality. But he makes an important distinction between primary and secondary qualities. Primary qualities belong to the objects themselves. They cannot be separated from the object. As such he calls them objective. Examples of primary qualities are solidity, extension, motion, shape, size, impenetrability etc. Secondary qualities on the other hand are mere sensations or ideas in the mind of the knower. They are sensations produced in the mind by the primary qualities. They vary under different conditions. They are subjective. Locke is an empiricist, but he believes in the existence of matter, mind or soul and God though they are not given in experience. He says that we have to assume the existence of matter as the substratum of primary qualities of objects though we do not perceive it. Similarly, the existence of mind is inferred from various mental operations. Its existence must be assumed as the substratum of power of perceiving, thinking, feeling and willing. Similarly, we infer the existence of God as the maker of the external world. Locke being an empiricist refuses to believe that knowledge can be derived from any other source than sense-experience, but he crosses the bounds of empiricism by accepting the existence of matter, mind and God. 1. Why empiricism is called a-posteriori theory of knowledge? 2. Locke maintains that at the time of birth we are born with innate ideas. True/ False 3. Reflection is prior to sensation. True/ False 4. Locke is a thorough going empiricist. True/ False 5. Mind is given in experience and therefore, according to Locke we should believe in its existence. True/ False DAVID HUME (1711-1776) Hume developed Locke’s empiricism to its logical conclusion. Hume is a true empiricist and he does not accept the existence of anything that is not given in experience. As such he denies the existence of mind, matter and God, because these are not given in experience. According to him, all knowledge comes from impressions and ideas. Impressions are lively perceptions and images are their faint copies. There are impressions of sensations or external perceptions and impressions of reflection or internal perception. They constitute the original materials of knowledge. Impressions and ideas are discrete or disconnected from one another. Impressions and ideas are automatically combined with one another by the laws of association, such as law of contiguity, similarity and causality. A picture suggests the object it represents due to law of similarity. An inkpot suggests a pen due to law of contiguity in space. A lightening suggests a thunder due to law of contiguity in time. Fire suggests burning due to law of causation. Thus discrete impressions get connected with one another due to the laws of association. Thus our knowledge is composed of impressions and ideas combined by the laws of association. Our knowledge does not owe anything to reason or intellect. However, these laws are subjective in nature. As such the connection they provide to the impressions are also subjective. Hume rejects the idea of material substance, mind and God, as we do not have any empirical evidence of them. He also rejects all metaphysical entities, as we cannot have any ideas of these entities. Hume admits only particular and contingent truths as they alone are given in experience. It is not possible to go beyond sensation to know reality outside them. Hume’s theory thus lands up in sensationism and scepticism. CRITICISM The doctrine of criticism is synthesis of rationalism and empiricism. As we see neither rationalism nor empiricism is a satisfactory theory of knowledge. By denying the role of experience rationalism has become one sided. Empiricism also is one sided as it denies the role of reason in knowledge. However, rationalism rightly emphasizes the universality or necessity of knowledge. But it is wrong in accepting innate ideas. If we accept innate ideas then we also will have to accept that there is no progress in knowledge as knowledge consists simply in analytical deduction of innate principles. Therefore, empiricists are right in emphasizing that knowledge is acquired through experience. But the problem with empiricism is that it denies universal and necessary knowledge as experience gives us only contingent truths. However, true knowledge should be universal and at the same time it should be novel. Immanuel Kant tries to reconcile rationalism and empiricism in criticism and give a satisfactory view of knowledge that is both universal and contains novelty. MMANUEL KANT (1724-1804) According to Kant, no knowledge is possible without sensation. But he also holds that knowledge is not wholly derived from experience, as it cannot give us universality. The part of knowledge that is not given by experience is a priori. According to Kant, human mind receives sensation from without. The sensations are produced by noumena or things-in-themselves. These are the materials of knowledge. These sensations are discrete or disconnected from one another. As such they cannot give us knowledge unless they are connected with one another by the mind with its synthetic activity. Thus the form of knowledge is supplied by the mind from within itself. According to Kant, both forms and matter of knowledge always go together. In the words of Kant: “Conception without perception is empty; perception without conception is blind”. Kant divides the faculty of knowing into three subordinate faculties: the faculty of sensibility, the faculty of understanding and the faculty of reasoning.Faculty of sensibility: When we perceive a thing, we perceive it in space and time. Space and time are the forms of perception that sensibility applies to the disconnected sensations and converts them to intelligible objects. Space and time do not belong to the things-in-themselves. They are the forms of perception. They are the a priori ways of perceiving things. Faculty of understanding: Categories of understanding are the universal necessary characteristics of experience which are found in all mental experience. Understanding applies its categories, namely, substance, causality, unity, plurality etc., to the sensations that are already arranged in space and time by sensibility. Like the forms of perception they also do not apply to things-in-themselves. Faculty of reason: Reason is the faculty by which the mind tries to employ its innate forms and categories where there is no sensuous experience. Sensations arranged in space and time by sensibility and subsumed under the categories of understanding are co-ordinated by reason. Reason co-ordinates sensibility and understanding according to its ideas of the world, soul and God. These three ideas of reason are regulative ideas. These are the ideas by which reason organizes the facts of experience into a system. The discrete sensations supplied by experience are reduced to a unity by the synthetic activity of the mind. According to Kant, sensations are the materials of knowledge, while the faculties of knowing-forms of sensibility, categories of understanding and Ideas of reason are supplied by the mind itself. Thus our knowledge is confined to phenomena or appearances only. Noumena or the things-in-themselves remain unknown and unknowable. Human mind cannot know them. All thinkers before Kant regarded that our perceptions correspond to the characteristics in the external world. Kant, on the other hand, maintains that objects in order to be known must conform to the constitution of our minds. Thus according to Kant, in knowledge, instead of mind conforming to an independent nature, it is nature that conforms to mind. This is known as the Copernican Revolution in philosophy. 1. Forms of knowledge are a priori. True/False 2. Mind can know only phenomena. True/ False 3. Why according to Kant we cannot know noumena? ANSWERS (I) 1. False 2. False 3. False 4. True 5. Adventitious, factitious and innate. 6. Certainty (II) 1. b 2. c (III) 1. False 2. True (IV) 1. Because according to empiricism, experience is the source of knowledge. 2. False 3. False 4. False 5. False (V) 1. Because we do not have any impressions of mind, matter and God. 2. False (VI) 1. True 2. True 3. Because faculties of knowing do not apply to noumena.

SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION

Let us discuss the background of appointing the Secondary Education Commission. After achieving the independence in 1947, both the public and the Government began to take keen interest in the development of secondary education. Although the number of secondary schools and its enrolment began to significantly increase even before India’s attaining independence, the quality of education imparted was unable to meet the changing socio-economic needs of the country. As such, the need for reform was strongly felt. The university Education Commission also remarked that our secondary education remained the weakest link in our educational machinery and it needed urgent reforms. Meanwhile with the attainment of independence, the political situation of the country also underwent a complete transformation. Education also needed a fresh look, calling for a new outlook which was appropriately voiced by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the then Education Minister in his presidential address to the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1948. The Central Advisory Board of Education at its 14th meeting held in January 1948 recommended the appointment of a commission to examine the prevailing system of Secondary Education in the country and to suggest measures for its reorganization and improvement. There were other considerations also before the Government of India for setting up a commission for Secondary Education. In view of these considerations, the Government of India set up, the Secondary Education Commission by Resolution dated 23rd September, 1952, under the Chairmanship of Dr. A. Lakshmanaswami Mudaliar, the Vice-Chancellor of the Madras University. Therefore this commission is also known as Mudaliar Commission. The Commission was inaugurated on 6th October, 1952. It submitted its Report on June 1953. Terms of Reference The terms of reference of this Commission are as follows: a) To enquire into and report on the present position of Secondary Education in India in all its aspects. b) To suggest measures for its re-organisation and improvement with particular reference to - i) The aims, organisation and content of secondary education. ii) Its relationship to primary, basic and higher education. iii) The inter-relation of secondary schools of different types. iv) Other allied problems. So that a sound and reasonable uniform system of secondary education suited to our needs and resources may be provided for the whole country. Method of Enquiry The Commission prepared a questionnaire dealing with the various aspects of secondary education. This was sent out to various educational experts, teachers and educational institutions of India. On the basis of the replies received a good deal of information was collected. The members of the Commission took an extensive tour of the various parts of India and acquired first-hand knowledge of the various educational problems and presented its report running on August 29, 1953. REPORT OF THE COMMISSION Now we shall discuss about the report of the Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53. As the report is a very lengthy one containing 311 pages, it is not possible for us to discuss all aspects in detail. We will confine our discussion to the defects of the prevailing system of secondary education in India and the recommendations given by the Commission regarding its aims, new organizational pattern and the curriculum. Let us discuss all these points one by one. Defects of the Existing System The Commission pointed out the following defects of the existing system - • First, the education given in our schools is isolated from life. The curriculum as formulated and as presented through the traditional methods of teachings does not give the students insight into the everyday world in which they are living. • Secondly, it is narrow and one sided and it fails to train the whole personality of the student. • Thirdly, too much importance has been given to English. Students who did not posses special linguistic ability were, therefore, greatly handicapped in their studies. • Fourthly, the method of teaching generally practised failed to develop in the students their independence of thought and initiative in action. • Fifthly, the increase in size of the classes has considerably reduced personal contact between the teachers and the pupils. Thus the training of character andinculcation of proper discipline have been seriously undermined. • Finally, the dead weight of the examination has tended to curb the teachers initiative, to stereotype the curriculum, to promote mechanical and lifeless methods of teaching, to discourage all spirit of experimentation and to place the stress on the wrong, or unimportant things on education. Its Recommendations on the Aims of Secondary Education The Commission has made the following recommendations in regard to its aims of Secondary Education - Development of democratic citizenship Since India has decided to make itself a democratic republic, the citizens have to be trained to uphold and practice the values of the democratic social order. This can be possible only when the qualities of discipline, tolerance, patriotism, co-operation, equal opportunities for thought, speech and writing, the essence of the world citizenship are inculcated and developed in the students. Secondary education, according to the Mudaliar Commission, should develop all these qualities in the students. Citizens with these qualities can grow into ideal - citizens capable of making Indian democracy a success. In short, the aim of secondary education should be to develop ideal democratic citizens in the country. Improvement of Vocational efficiency : One of the urgent needs of the country is to increase the productive efficiency of its people and to increase the national income. For this, education must aim at increasing the productivity or vocational efficiency of the young students. To achieve this goal, the Secondary Education Commission recommended for fostering the dignity of manual labour and for the promotion of technical skills for the advancement of industry and technology through secondary education. Therefore, secondary education is to be freed from purely theoretical education system and emphasis is to be placed on agricultural, technical, commercial and other practical courses. Education for leadership : Secondary education is a terminal point for majority of the students. Therefore, at the end of the school education, each pupil must be able to enter into various professions independently. “A special function of the secondary school, in the context, is to train persons who will be able to assume the responsibility of leadership - in social, political, industrial or cultural fields - in their own small groups of community or locality.” Development of personality : The secondary education must aim at the development of the personality of the students. It should be so organised that the creative energy in the students should find proper expression. They should also be trained to appreciate their cultural heritage and acquire constructive and valuable interest. They should also be trained to preserve and conserve their cultural heritage. An all-round development of the personality of the student is an essential aim of secondary education. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3. Which of the following are the recommendations on the Aims of Secondary Education? Put a (3) for the right answer. i) Education and productivity ii) Education and national integration iii) Development of democratic citizenship iv) Development of personality v) Education and Modernisation vi) Improvement of Vocational Efficiency vii) Development of social, moral and spiritual values viii) Education for leadership Re-organisation of Secondary Education Regarding the organizational pattern of secondary education, the Secondary Education Commission recommended that secondary education should be a complete stage by itself. This stage of education is most important for the students in their preparation for life. To raise the standard of school education the Commission proposed the following organizational pattern: • The duration of secondary education should be 7 years. It should cover the age of group of11-17. • Under the new organizational structure secondary education should commence after 4 or 5 years of primary or junior basic education. • The middle or senior basic or lower secondary stage should cover a period of 3 years. • The higher secondary stage should cover 3 years. • The commission also suggested abolition of the present intermediate classes. The 12th class should be attached to the university and the 11th class should be added to the high school. Thus it pleaded for one year pre-university and 3 year degree courses. • The commission recommended that technical schools should be started in large number and central technical institutes should be established in large cities. • Multi-purpose schools should be established, which would provide terminal courses in technology, commerce, agriculture, fine arts and home sciences. The object of theses institutions was to direct students into different walks of life at the end of the secondary course and this will reduce the pressure upon university entrance. Defects of the Existing Curriculum The Commission has pointed out the following defects in the existing curriculum: • The present curriculum is narrow. • It is bookish and theoretical. • It is overcrowded and does not provide rich and significant contents. • There is no adequate provision for practical and other kinds of activities that should find place in any curriculum at this stage of education. Hence, the curriculum is not able to bring about the education of the whole personality of the child. • It does not cater to the various needs and capacities of the adolescents. • Technical and vocational subjects are very much needed for India today, but the curriculum does not find room for these subjects. • Curriculum is too much dominated by the examination. The Basic Principles of Curriculum Construction The Secondary Education Commission has recommended some principles to be followed in the construction of curriculum. • Principles of totality of experience - According to the Secondary Education Commission, “The curriculum does not include only the academic subjects traditionally taught in the school but it includes the totality of experiences that a pupil receives through manifold activities that go in the school, in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop, playground and in numerous informal contacts between teachers and pupils.” All types of experiences in the school or planned by the school should be included in the curriculum. • Principles of variety and elasticity - The Curriculum should be elastic and include varieties of subjects and activities to meet the needs of the various types of pupils. The curriculum should be adaptable to meet the needs and interests of the students. • Principles relating to community -The curriculum should be related to the community. There should be community - oriented programmes in the curriculum so that a child can feel that he is an integral part of the local community. The curriculum should bring the child and the community closer. • Principle of training for leisure -The Curriculum should be designed to train the students not only for work but also for leisure. For this purpose there should be a number of activities - social, aesthetic, sporting etc. which should be included in the curriculum. These activities will train the students to use their leisure time properly. • Principle of integration and correlation -The curriculum should not be merely a bundle of subjects and activities. The activities and subjects should be integrated and well - correlated. The curriculum should provide a ‘broad field’ units having direct bearing on life. Curriculum of Different Stages of Secondary Schools 1) Curriculum for Middle Schools 2) Curriculum for High and Higher Secondary Schools. The Commission has laid down the following different curriculum for these two stages in the secondary education. 1) Curriculum for the Middle Schools - The Commission has recommended the inclusion of the following subjects. a) English. b) Social Studies. c) General Science. d) Mathematics. e) Art and Music. f) Craft. g) Physical Education. 2) The Curriculum for High and Higher Secondary Schools- For this stage of education, the commission has suggested that there should be a diversified course. (a) Compulsory subjects or main subjects; and (b) Optional subjects. A) Compulsory Subjects : The Compulsory subjects shall include the following : 1. Mother tongue or regional language or composite course of the mother tongue and a classical language. 2. One other language to be chosen from among the following: i) Hindi for those whose mother tongue is not Hindi. ii) Elementary English (for those who have not studied English in the middle stage). iii) Advanced English (for those who have studied English at the earlier stage). iv) A Modern Indian Language (other than Hindi). v) A modern foreign language (other than English). vi) A classical language. 3. Social studies - General course (for the first two years only). 4. General science, Including Mathematics - General course (for the first two years only). 5. One Craft to be chosen out of the list given below : i) Spinning and weaving ii) Wood Work iii) Metal Work iv) Gardening v) Tailoring vi) Typography vii) Workshop Practice viii) Sewing, Needle Work and Embroidery ix) Modeling B) Optional Subjects : Three subjects from one of the following groups - Group - 1 (Humanities) : (a) A classical language or a third language from A (2) not already taken; (b) History; (c) Geography; (d) Elements of Economics and Civics; (e) Elements of Psychology and Logic; (f) Mathematics; (g) Music; (h) Domestic Science. Group -2 (Sciences) : (a) Physics; (b) Chemistry; (c) Biology; (d) Geography; (e) Mathematics; (f) Elements of Physiology and Hygiene; (not to be taken with Biology). Group -3 (Technical) : (a) Applied Mathematics and Geometrical Engineering; (b) Applied Science; (c) Elements of Mechanical Engineering; (d) Elements of Electrical Engineering. Group - 4 (Commercial) : (a) Commercial Practice; (b) Book-Keeping; (c) Commercial Geography or Elements of Economics and Civics; (d) Shorthand and Typewriting. Group - 5 (Agriculture) : (a) General Agriculture; (b) Animal Husbandry; (c) Horticulture and Gardening; (d) Agricultural Chemistry and Botany Group - 6 (Fine Arts) : (a) History of Art; (b) Drawing and Designing; (c) Painting; (d) Modelling; (e) Music; (f) Dancing. Group - 7 (Home Science) : (a) Home Economics; (b) Nutrition and Cookery; (c) Mother Craft and Child Care; (d) Household Management and Home Nursing. Besides the above, a student may take as his option one additional subject from any of the above groups irrespective of whether or not he has chosen his other options from that particular group. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4. Mention any four defects of the existing curriculum. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 5. What are the recommendations of secondary Education Commission on the principles of curriculum construction? ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................

Challenges for Secondary Education in India

Education is a Fundamental Right of every citizen of our country. But unfortunately, despite several commissions appointed to improve the state of education in our country since independence, not much headway has been made towards making it relevant to the needs of the time. Parrot learning and reproducing half-baked ideas in the examination halls has been the yardstick of assessing the quality of school goers in all levels whether it is Primary, Secondary or College Education. One of the greatest task before the nation is to expand and extend the outreach of good education to its younger generations, first at the elementary level and then more important emphasis to secondary education. The Constitution of India eloquently highlights the critical significance of these two levels of education. There is an urge to build a society that contribute progress and welfare and at the same time ensure that the next generation inherit a world which would make them proceed ahead further towards better conditions and situations. Education systems are encountering changes everywhere. The issues related to the educational changes have been analysed globally. These need to be understood and analysed. Educationist and educators all over the world come across certain board features which include (i) fast changing technologies and ever increasing impact of information and communication technology (ii) emerging emphasis on self-learning, self directed learning, self motivated learning and as also of co-operative learning (iii) issues related to infrastructures in schools and institution (iv) issues of professional development and growth. These issues related to the educational changes have been analysed globally and the Delors' Commission report, 'Learning The Treasure Within' presents a very comprehensive view of the emerging shapes of education globally. Several significant parameters identified in the report appear irrevocably relevant as these emphasis the indigenous aspects of education and strongly recommend that education must be rooted to culture and committed to progress. The quality and character of the people greatly depend on the education imparted to them at different levels. Mahatma Gandhi had perceived the essence of education as an integral part of life closely related to the requirements of a healthy and productive national life. He felt that an educational system must provide for a proper atmosphere to make the child of fully aware of the responsibility to his family, community and country. Gandhi says: 'By Education, I mean an all round drawing out of the best in child and man Body, Mind and Spirit.' In fast changing world, education needs to respond to the change. In fact education needs to respond everything that is happening in environment external to the process of teaching and learning and the system that is responsible for it. With the unprecedented advent of information and communication technology a global perspective has to be developed and one has to perforce respond to the implication of globalization. To meet the challenge, the new pattern of education, or the New Education Policy of 1986 recommended at the national level, envisages ten years of general education two years of senior secondary and three years degree course. In the first stage of schooling taking ten years, a student is expected to acquire the prescribed minimum proficiency in languages and mathematics. During these days also they are made aware of our cultural heritage and contemporary social, geographical political, economical issues. After this they join the plus two stage before joining college or universities. These systems appears good in appearance. But the system still not been able to make education socially relevant in our society. Education even at this stage really is confined into the four walls of classrooms where the teachers lecture on his specified subject and the students not actively listen to the lectures. The profession of teaching has just been reduced to passing on some information to the students so that the later in turn reproduce it at the time of examination. This fails to involve the students in the learning process and their critical faculties remain untouched. These course of study, patterns of education only brings uncertain future staring in the face of aspiring students. This uncertainty about their future provide potential fodder for the phenomenon known as 'students unrest'. This is the real challenge that lies ahead for secondary education in India. Coming to the context of secondary education in Manipur, the academic atmosphere in the school is haunted by uncertainties. Bandhs and general strikes are called at every moment at every drop of hat. The syllabi, moreover have not undergone any change over the years except some superficial ones. Nearly 95 percent of the grants made to our educational institutions are spent in paying salaries to the teachers and other supporting staff leaving little room for provision of infrastructures like classrooms, laboratories, playgrounds and other facilities to the students. About vocational education, vocationalisation of education. It is not made truly vocational in keeping with the needs of the time. Vocational streams were opened in some higher secondary schools but this is discontinued from this academic session as the Govt fails to provide materials, teachers and feeder colleges after secondary level. So in the end, responding to global and local socio-economic changes, decision makers need to know clearly what the changes and challenges are, why are these going to happen and how will it be tackled. Then the changes and challenges can be approach with confidence and enthusiasm. ________________________________________

Sunday, April 22, 2012

PAPER: TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS


Al-Falah School of Education & Training B.Ed. Examination April, 2012 Teaching of Mathematics Paper: VI & VII Gr-B(i) Time: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 100 Note: Attempt any five questions in all, selecting one question from each unit. Question 1 is compulsory. Q.1 Write short notes on any four of the following: 4X5 (i) Diagnostic Testing (ii) Remedial Teaching (iii) Supervised Study (iv) Mathematics Fair Unit-I Q.2 What types of difficulties are faced by the teacher in teaching mathematics? How will you overcome them? Discuss. 20 Q.3. Write notes on: 10,10 (i) Values to be taught through teaching of mathematics (ii) Historical Development of mathematics Unit-II Q.4. What is an Inductive-Deductive method of teaching of mathematics? Explain it with examples. 20 Q.5 Writes notes on: 10,10 (i) Oral Work (ii) Self Study Unit-III Q.6 Writes notes on: 10,10 (i) Application of I.C.T in teaching of Mathematics (ii) Importance and Organization of Mathematics Club Q.7 Prepare a lesson plan on any topic in mathematics for X class. 20 Unit-IV Q.8 Analyze one of the following units in term of Pedagogical analysis: 10,10 (i) Volume (ii) Central Tendencies Mean, Median, Mode Q.9 Writes notes on: 10,10 (i) Criterion and Norm Reference Test (ii) Continuous & Comprehensive Evaluation

PAPER : SECONDARY EDUCATION IN INDIA


Al-Falah School of Education & Training B.Ed. Examination April, 2012 SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL IN INDIA Paper: V Time: One & Half Hours Maximum Marks: 50 Note: Attempt any three questions in all, selecting one question from each unit. Question 1 is compulsory. Q.1 Write short notes on the following: 2X5 (i) Important provision of article 29, 30 & 45 (ii) NAAC (iii) Three Language Formula (iv) Need of in-service teacher education Unit-I Q.2 What is Quality of education? Discuss the different parameters of quality education. 20 Q.3. Write notes on: 10,10 (i) National Curriculum Framework 2005 (ii) Problems and Issues in Secondary Education Unit-II Q.4. Writes notes on: 10,10 (i) What is teacher education? Explain its objectives at secondary level (ii) Role of SCERT and DIETs Q.5 Why today we need to reform our examination system? What is the implication of continuous and comprehensive evaluation?

ICET HOME PAPER APRIL 2012 EXAM


Al-Falah School of Education & Training B.Ed. Examination April, 2012 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION & EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY Paper: V Time: Three hours Maximum Marks: 100 Note: Attempt any five questions in all, selecting one question from each unit. Question 1 is compulsory. Q.1 Write short notes on the following: 4X5 (i) Meaning and Importance of Educational Statistics (ii) Uses and Application of Computer (iii) Co-operative Learning (iv) Net Working Unit-I Q.2 Define Information Communication technology. How do ICT help teachers to make effective teaching learning process? 20 Q.3. Write notes on: 10,10 (i) Multimedia, meaning, importance and use in education (ii) Models and Barriers of communication Unit-II Q.4. Writes notes on: 10,10 (i) Meaning and scope of Educational Technology (ii) Thinking skills Q.5 Writes notes on: 10,10 (i) Flanders Interaction Analysis (ii) Programmed Learning Unit-III Q.6 Writes notes on: 10,10 (i) System approach (ii) Personalized Instructional System Q.7 Writes notes on: 10,10 (i) Inquiry Training Model (ii) Mastery Learning Model Unit-IV Q.8 What is Action Research? Discuss the significance of Action Research in teacher education. 10,10 (i) Volume (ii) Central Tendencies Mean, Median, Mode Q.9 Mention the different types of graphical representation of data. Draw a histogram from the following frequency distribution of the score of 60 students. 20 CI 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4 f 2 5 8 9 12 10 7 4 3