Multimedia

6.3 MULTIMEDIA

Information which is stored in different forms could be combined and used in different combinations. Multimedia can be recorded and played, displayed, dynamic, interacted with or accessed by information processing devices, such as computerized and electronic devices Multimedia devices are electronic media devices used to store and experience multimedia content. This process has given rise to the term ‘Multi-media’. This combination of different media for communication has influenced and changed all aspects of our life, including the teacher and the learner. Multimedia has become an inevitable part of any presentation. We have seen that it has found a variety of applications right from entertainment to education. The evolution of internet has also increased the demand for multimedia content. Multimedia is a term used to describe how multiple means of media  like text, audio, graphics, animation, video, and interactivity are used to communicate information . It is also often used to describe any computer media.  This helps us to understand information at a faster rate.

 6.3.1 Meaning of Multimedia

Multimedia is defined in many ways. Most of the definitions agree on the characteristic that multimedia contains texts, graphics, animations, video and sound in an unified way and the content can be structured and presented differently.  Let us explore some of the definitions given below.

“Multimedia is the exciting combination of computer hardware and software that allows you to integrate video, animation, audio, graphics, and text resources to develop effective presentations on an affordable desktop computer” (Fenrich, 1997).

“Multimedia is characterized by the presence of text, pictures, sound, animation and video; some or all of which are organized into some coherent program” (Phillips, 1997).

From these definitions we see that Multimedia is a concept which sees the use of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video in different combinations.  This integration of Media into one whole and that which gives the user more benefits than any one of the media used individually is Multimedia.

Interactive Multimedia: The Encyclopedia Britannica Online defines "Interactive Multimedia" as, any computer-delivered electronic system that allows the user to control, combine, and manipulate different types of media, such as text, sound, video, computer graphics, and animation. Interactive multimedia integrates computer, memory storage, digital (binary) data, telephone, television, and other information technologies. Their most common applications include training programs, video games, electronic encyclopedias, and travel guides. Interactive multimedia shift the user's role from observer to participant and are considered the next generation of electronic information systems.

6.3.2 Elements of Multimedia

The different building blocks of Multimedia are Text, Images and graphics, Audio, Video, and Animation. Any multimedia application consists any or all of them. Let us learn about each one of them

• Text - ASCII/Unicode, HTML, Postscript, PDF
• Audio – Sound, music, speech, structured audio (e.g. MIDI)
• Still Image - Facsimile, photo, scanned image, photographs, drawings, maps and slides
• Video (Moving Images) – Movie, a sequence of pictures
• Graphics – Computer produced image
• Animation – A sequence of graphics images

1. Text: Text and symbols are very important for communication in any medium. Using text in online training has many advantages: text files are small so they perform well at low bandwidth, the user can search for specific words or phrases, and text can be easily updated. You can create text directly within an authoring application or import it from external text files. Anti-aliasing enables you to create attractive text that blends into the background color without any jagged edges. Authorware, Director, and Flash all support anti-aliased text. Using anti-aliased text helps avoid having to create display text as a graphics file, which would make your overall course size much larger than if you simply entered text directly into the authoring tool.

2. Images and Graphics: Images play a very important role in a multimedia. It is expressed in the form of still picture, painting or a photograph taken through a digital camera. The points at which an image is sampled are known as picture elements, commonly abbreviated as pixels. The pixel values of intensity images are called grayscale levels.  There are different kinds of image formats like the Captured Image Format and the format when images are stored. The captured image Format is known by two main factors that is spatial resolution which is specified as pixels x pixels (eg. 640x480) and color encoding, which is specified by bits per pixel. Both factors depend on hardware and software for input/output of images. The Stored Image Format is when we store an image; we are storing a two-dimensional array of values, in which each value represents the data associated with a pixel in the image. These images can be edited with the help of few of the software like general drawing programs, JASC Paint Shop Pro, Corel Photo Paint, Macromedia Fireworks ,Art Rage: free (NZ) paint program simulating , Corel Draw , and Open Office / Libre Office Draw, GIMP, and Mypaint.

Graphics Formats: Most Web browsers can display GIF and JPEG graphics files. Web browsers that are version 4.0 or later can use the JPEG format for continuous-tone images, such as photographs and images that use color gradients. The PNG format was developed as a patent-free replacement for the GIF format. PNGs can use an alpha channel to define transparency in a graphic. Import PNG files into any of the Macromedia tools as an alternative to GIF files, especially if you need 24-bit graphics or graphics with transparency. Use this format in Web-native content only when delivering to newer browsers; some older browsers do not support the PNG format also display PNG graphics files. The two most popular graphic formats for online training and Web pages in general are GIFs and JPEGs. Both are bitmap files that are relatively small in size. The two formats compress images differently, each excelling at compressing different types of graphics. Using software such as Macromedia Fireworks, you can compare the file size of your graphics with various optimization settings to help you pick the best file format. Use the GIF format for line art and graphics that have large areas of a single color. Graphics saved in the GIF format can have one transparent color where JPEG graphics cannot. There are applications like format factory which helps us in converting graphics from one format to other.

3. Audio: Audio can enhance learning concepts and reinforce ideas presented as text or graphics on the screen. Using audio may be essential to the teaching of topics such as a foreign language or music appreciation. There are three types of audio assets that are commonly used in e-learning:

• Music
• Narration (voice-overs)
• Sound effects

Music demands a higher-quality and a wider sound-frequency range than narration and therefore produces larger files. Narrations generally have a smaller sound frequency range so it can be compressed more than music and still retain good sound quality. Sound effects are generally short so they don’t have a large impact on the overall file size of an online course.

Audio Formats: The WAV and AIFF audio formats, popular on Microsoft Windows and Macintosh systems respectively, usually create files that are too large to use in an online course. Use one of the compressed formats with the goal of balancing small file size with acceptable quality audio. You have different options depending upon which authoring software you use. Both Shockwave Audio (SWA) used by Authorware and Director, and MP3, which is used by Flash are popular compressed formats useful for all three types of audio used in e-learning. The open source audio editing software like audacity is very popular tool for audio editing.

4. Video: Although video requires lots of bandwidth to download, it is very useful for conveying certain information. Using video in e-learning helps realistically demonstrate equipment and processes among other things. For instance, an e-learning course in botany might show a video of a sprouting seed. A course about the features of an airplane might show a video of a crewmember properly closing and securing a door for takeoff. The intricate level of detail visible in video is also ideal for illustrating subtle, nonverbal information. For example, to teach sales skills you could use a video to demonstrate an interaction between a salesperson and a customer, then have the learners analyze the body language of the people involved in the transaction.

Video Formats: There are three standard digital video formats: Quick Time, Video for Windows, and MPEG. Video files tend to be large so they really aren’t appropriate for delivery on modem connections. You may choose to include video in your e-learning course if you are delivering it over an intranet or to users with relatively high bandwidth connections. There are many open source video editing tool and open shot is one such popular tool.

5. Animation: Animation illustrates concepts with movement, shows processes, or draws attention to a region or elements of a screen. Since animations usually involve graphics, they are highly dependent upon the size and file type of the graphics that are being animated.

Animation Formats: There are many ways you can create animations. Authorware, Dreamweaver, Director and Flash can all create animations. An animation created within an authoring program is usually smaller and more efficient than an animation created in another tool and then imported in your authoring program. This is particularly true when an animation is based on shapes created with the software’s drawing tools rather than with imported bitmaps. For example, Flash excels at creating vector graphics and animations. Although Flash can animate bitmap graphics, animations made predominately with vector graphics in Flash are considerably smaller than animations created with bitmap graphics. Simple 2D animations can be created using open source tools like pencil or tupi and more advance tools like blender.

6.3.3 Types of Multimedia

 Multimedia may be broadly divided into Linear and Non-linear Multimedia.

In Linear Multimedia the active content progresses without any navigational control for the viewer. The viewer interacts with the multimedia application in which the content is sequentially arranged. The viewer does not control the progress of the content. In other words, the viewer is a passive receiver of the multimedia content most of the time. For example a movie uses a combination of audio, graphics and animations, but the viewer has no control over the sequence of events.
Non-linear Multimedia uses interactivity to control progress as with a video game or self-paced computer based training. It allows one to use the content according to ones wants. It is a two way communication. This communication can be controlled by using buttons, links and hypertext. Hypermedia is an example of non-linear content. It connects to different media elements such as audio and video. Multimedia presentations which are live or recorded are also Non-linear. A recorded presentation may allow interactivity via a navigation system. A live multimedia presentation may allow interactivity via an interaction with the presenter or performer.

Different Types of Multimedia Interactivity
According to Reimann as stated in Andresen (2013), interactivity contains a broad range of possibilities for influencing the process of learning and the content of studies:
• Manipulating objects on the screen by mouse activities;
• Linear navigating: moving forward/backward on the screen;
• Hierarchic navigating: the possibility of selecting sites/content by using special menus;
• Interactive help functionality. This kind of help, which can be available through special menu buttons, is most effective when adapted to the topical presentation of information;
• Feedback: The program answers by giving an assessment on the quality of user activities. These answers are visible on the screen. The further course program may be dependent on this assessment, i.e. adaptability is established;
• Communicative interaction: The possibility of interaction with other persons, i.e. other users or 'friends' in social networks. Since, 'social networks consist of people who are connected by a shared object' (Zengestrom, 2005), networks can foster learning about these objects.
• Constructive interaction: The program provides an opportunity for constructing or configuring objects on the screen. For example, users have a possibility to actively create their own nodes and link models, i.e. they can add new nodes and new links between already existing nodes and in this way develop their own hypertext structure;
• Reflective interactions: The program stores the learner's individual activities for further analysis (e.g. a navigation path within a hypermedia lesson). Furthermore, the program can provide the learner with an 'expert path' or a 'guided tour';
• Simulative interactivity: Objects on the screen are linked together and exchange information in such a way that a particular configuration of objects produces 'behavior' of these objects (simulations of machines, simulations of social interactions, etc.);
• Non-immersed contextual interactivity: The learner is involved in an activity that implies a pedagogical purpose. Many edutainment applications (software which combines education and entertainment) and adventure games use this kind of interactivity (Scenario 3);
• Immersed contextual interactivity: This is virtual reality. Within virtual reality the user dives into a simulated three-dimensional world.

6.3.4 A brief History of Multimedia

Li and Drew (2004) in their book on fundamentals of multimedia have traced the history of multimedia as follows:

Year	Major Events
17th Century	Newspapers, which were perhaps the first mass communication medium, using text, graphics, and images.
1830	Motion pictures were originally conceived of in the 1830s to observe motion too rapid for perception by the human eye
1887	Thomas Alva Edison 'commissioned the invention of a motion picture camera in 1887.
1895	In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi sent his first wireless radio transmission at Italy. A few years later (1901), he detected radio waves beamed across the Atlantic. Initially invented for telegraph, radio is now a major medium for audio broadcasting. In 1909, Marconi shared the Nobel Prize for physics.
1910	Silent feature films appeared from 1910 to 1927; the silent era effectively ended with the release of The Jazz Singer in 1927.
1926	Television was the new medium for the twentieth century. It established video as a commonly available medium and has since changed the world of mass communication.
1945	Vannevar Bush (1890-1974) wrote a landmark article describing what amounts to a hypermedia system, called "Memex." Memex was meant to be a universally useful and personalized memory device that even included in the concept of associative links - it really is the forerunner of the World Wide Web.
1960	Ted Nelson started the Xanadu project and coined the term "hypertext." Xanaduwas the first attempt at a hypertext system - Nelson called it a "magic place of literary memory."
1967	Nicholas Negroponte formed the Architecture Machine Group at MIT
1968	Douglas Engelbart, greatly influenced by Vannevar Bush's "As We May Think,"demonstrated the "On-Line System" (NLS), another early hypertext program.
1969	1969 Nelson and van Dam at Brown University created an early hypertext editor called FRESS- [4]. The present-day Inter media project by the Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship (IRIS) at Brown is the descendant of that early system.
1976	The MIT Architecture Machine Group proposed a project entitled "Multiple Media." This resulted in the Aspen Movie Map, the first hypermedia videodisc, in 1978.
1985	Negroponte and Wiesner cofounded the MIT Media Lab, a leading research institution investigating digital video and multimedia.
1989	Tim Berners-Lee proposed the World Wide Web to the European Council for Nuclear Research (CERN).
1990	Kristina Hooper Woolsey headed the Apple Multimedia Lab, with a staff of 100. Education was a chief goal.
1991	MPEG-1 was approved as an international standard for digital video. Its further development led to newer standards, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, and further MPEGs, in the 1990s.
1991	The introduction of PDAs in 1991 began a new period in the use of computers in general and multimedia in particular. This development continued in 1996 with the marketing of the first PDA with no keyboard.
1992	JPEG was accepted as the international standard for digital image compression. Its further development has now led to the new JPEG2000 standard.
1992	1992 The first M Bone audio multicast on the Net was made.
1993	The University of Illinois National Center for Supercomputing Applications produced NCSA Mosaic, the first full-fledged browser, launching a new era in Internet information access.
1994	Jim Clark and Marc Andreessen created the Netscape program.
1995	The JAVA language was created for platform-independent application development.
1996	DVD video was introduced; high-quality, full-length movies were distributed on asingle disk. The DVD format promised to transform the music, gaming and computer industries.
1998	1998 XML 1.0 was announced as a W3C Recommendation.
1998	Handheld MP3 devices first made inroads into consumer tastes in the fall, with the introduction of devices holding 32 MB of flash memory.
2000	World Wide Web (WWW) size was estimated at over 1 billion pages

6.4 DEVELOPING MULTIMEDIA

There has been a drastic change in the way teaching has progressed. We now have teaching with the help of Multimedia, a teaching machine and virtual classrooms. These changes are here to stay because of the availability of different types of Instructional media. The outlook of education has changed and the role of the teacher and the school has been redefined. Teachers are now facilitators using ICT based courseware. When we speak about Multimedia development, it includes the planned and organized use of all available materials which include all the elements of Multimedia viz Text, Audio, Image and Graphics, Video, Animations and all electronic and other media to achieve the goal of education in a most effective manner .Thus the development of Multimedia first focuses on the learners and what is required for them and of them. It involves planning instructional objectives, instructional content, instructional method, instructional media, how to deliver the content, and evaluation. There are many instructional design models for developing multimedia and what follows is the discussion of the one of the important design model ADDIE.

6.4.1 ADDIE Model of Multimedia Development: The instructional development model ADDIE is also appropriate for planning and developing multimedia resources.

 

                                                                               

6.4.2 Interface Design Guidelines for Multimedia: While designing the interface for multimedia content there are many design guidelines to be kept in mind. These guidelines and its explanations are provided in the following table.

Interface design guidelines	Explanations of Guidelines
Promote the use of graphics	User interfaces should include not only words, but a combination of words and graphics. In an eLearning course, graphics are not supposed to constitute simply decorative illustrations, but explanative illustrations
Maintain the contiguity of related items	In each screen of the course there should be an explicit connection among related information. The contiguity guideline is applied in the following ways Text should be near the relative graphic, by placing graphics in a decreased size precisely next to the text, placing each piece of text exactly next to the piece of graphic it explains or using pop-up text boxes. Results and feedback should be in the same screen with the question. Hyperlinks information should not cover the information of the initial screen, but lead to a separate window.
Promote the use of audio in graphics description	In cases where it is feasible, each time words and graphics are to be presented simultaneously, the instructional designer should use only oral narration and not words printed on the screen
Provide appropriate navigation support	Information, actions and possible choices should always be visible and easily accessible to the user. Navigation through the course can be supported with one or more of the following choices Course map, which presents the hierarchy of the course content. Paths that show exactly where the learner is at the moment. Previous, next and exit elements and indications of where the learner is at the moment. Pop-up text boxes that provide additional information. Guided tour, which demonstrates certain basic steps to navigate through the course. Visibility and ease of exit along with an explicit warning message Descriptive names of links, which function as an indication about the content to which they lead.
Attain eLearning content coherence	Coherence means uniformity in information presentation as well as in the possible actions of the learner during the entire course. In an eLearning course, coherence is enhanced when the instructor follows the following guidelines: Coherence in links design, so that it immediately indicates that it leads to another point of the course.  This design should be the same during the entire course. Coherence in screen structure, so that navigation support elements are always in the same place Coherence in screen design, which means that the use of the various aesthetic choices should remain the same Coherence in terminology use, which means that terms used should always have the same meaning as far as the result of their use is concerned
Support interactivity	The text of each page should be relatively short and, if the instructor wants to provide more information, it is preferable to give it through links. This means that information is not presented in a linear way, but the learner can control information attainment, processing and presentation through links that contain the relative information. Interactivity can be applied in a course through: Links into the main content that leads to further information. Links that lead to the next page, along with short text on each screen.
Organize links to create a useful course menu	A menu is a set of options, displayed on the screen, where the selection and execution of one or more of the options result in a change in the state of the interface. Some guidelines for the effective use of a course menu are: Menu classification and levels. The elements that constitute the menu usually derive from the course structure and the course navigation elements. The selection of the course elements that constitute the menu and their classification depend on criteria of sound sequence, functional criteria, or even criteria of frequency of use. Elements that are common in many parts of the course are placed in a superior level menu. Menu position. Menu should be visible and accessible from any point of the screen and it should be placed in a way that it does not cover another part of the menu or an important part of the screen when it opens. Minimising user steps. While navigating through the menu or the links, learners should be able to have access to the desirable page after 2-3 steps at most.
Promote the use of common language	The learning environment should contain words and phrases that the learner can immediately comprehend. The terminology used, the language and the visual representations should be compatible with the learner context. The dialogue and the presented information should not contain software terms.
Provide help	Help gives the learner the distinct steps to follow every time a problem arises. So, it should be available anywhere in the eLearning course. Learners should be able to consult help with easy, simple and standard steps. The return to the usual environment should be easy and obvious.
Provide appropriate screen design	Screen design refers to the development of attractive and effective screens. Below, there are presented some guidelines that the instructor should follow in order to create useful and effective screens, along with the ways they can be applied (aesthetics): The most significant information immediately distinguished. This can be applied by using frames or white space, by selecting the appropriate colours and by using bullet points, numbering and font style. Hierarchy. The selection of the appropriate colours, white space, different bullet points, different fonts and sizes play an important role in the codification of different groups of data and help in the application of hierarchy. Perception of the environment (Gestalt). Font type and size constitute the main elements for the application of the gestalt guideline.

6.5 TOOLS FOR CREATING AND USING MULTIMEDIA                        

We know that one learns best by doing.  When we are absorbed in constructing knowledge from a combination of different tools like the Digital Camera, Camcorder, Scanner ,Interactive white board or the Multimedia Projector we  more likely to gain a clearer understanding of concepts and how these different tools are used to integrate  various  learning materials sequentially or non-sequentially. Let us learn about how these tools can be used in preparing Multimedia Learning Material. Please visit the links given with each tool to learn more

Name of the Tool	Description
6.5.1 Digital Camera	A Digital Camera is an electronic device that converts images and videos digitally and stores them for later reproduction. Most cameras that are used today are digital and are incorporated into many devices like mobile phones, tablets, laptops, vehicles and many other. Unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory.  The stored images can be uploaded to a computer immediately for printing or also stored in an external disc. Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and edit pictures. You can learn more about it by visiting the link below.
6.5.2 Camcorder	A camcorder or a video camera recorder is a transportable electronic recording device which is used in recording live-motion video and audio for later playback.  Earlier the Camcorder used to be bulky and heavy using magnetic tape for the recording but now the digital video camcorders are smaller and lighter and have better picture quality and longer battery life. The important aspect of the recorded digital video is that it can be stored and transferred to a computer where you can edit with ease which allows you to change the order of shots and undo edits. This means that you can easily modify, draft and re-draft the recorded films and use it creatively to prepare Multimedia Learning Material.
6.5.3 Scanner	A scanner is an input device that converts an image such as a photograph, textual document into an electronic digital form by a process called scanning.  Most of the Scanners are flatbed and have a cover that can be lifted so that magazine, photographs and bulky books can be scanned. They work in combination of computer software programs which help in the creation of an electronic version of the scanned document, allows you to view it and edit it on a computer. Thus you can use and publish the stored image as it is or by modifying it.
6.5.4.Interactive white Board	An interactive whiteboard (IWB) is a large interactive display that connects to a computer. A projector projects the computer's desktop onto the board's surface where users control the computer using a pen, finger, stylus, or other device. The board is typically mounted to a wall or floor stand. They are used in a variety of settings, including classrooms at all levels of education, in corporate board rooms and work groups, in training rooms for professional sports coaching, in broadcasting studios, and others. Examples of the characteristics accessible when using an interactive whiteboard: • Add comments • Highlight text • Add notes and drawings and then save them to be printed out and shared, or added to a virtual learning environment. • Show pictures and educational videos . Parts can be labeled or highlighted. • Show the content  on a website
6.5.5.Multimedia Projector	A Multimedia Projector or LCD Projector is a type of video projector for displaying video, images or computer data on a screen or any other flat surface. It is a modern equivalent of the slide projector or overhead projector. The presentation of visual media through projection is an effective way to entertain, educate, and communicate with people on a large scale.  The use of Multimedia Projector can give the essence of the presentation in bullet points, It can bring the audio and visual inputs to the classroom, It can be projected on the screen allowing everyone to watch the presentation, It can be made interesting by using movies and such clippings and inputs planned elsewhere in the world can be brought into our own classrooms.

Bottom of Form

6.6 USE OF MULTIMEDIA IN EDUCATION

Multimedia is used in many applications today. It has become integrated in all aspects of one’s life. It improves the way people relate with electronic information. Today it has been widely used in the education sector. Teachers use multimedia in different ways for different levels of students. The different ways one can use it are for individualized instruction, collaborative learning, computerized assessments and Multimedia presentations. Technologies allow us to overcome limitations of time, distance, and physical capability, but they only empower us when they can be gracefully used by large, productive segments of our society. For example we see that open and distance learning is one area where many are taking advantage of the content and the courses that are delivered to the students. Some of the new concepts that are used by educationists are podcasting, webinars,, learning management systems and many more.

There are studies showing that learners who learn using Multimedia material have more retention of the concepts taught versus traditional modes of instruction and the student involvement was higher. It has also shown that learner’s comprehension also increased with the concepts being taught with Multimedia material. The using and designing of Multimedia material by the learners also develop many skills, Connell, and Carver, Lehrer Ericksen (1992) list some of the major thinking skills that learners learn and use as multimedia designers.

• Project Management Skills
• Research Skills
• Organization and Representation Skills
• Presentation Skills
• Reflection Skills

Project Management Skills

• Planning a timeline for the finishing of the project.
• Assigning resources and time to different parts of the project.
• Assigning roles to team members.

Research Skills

• Defining the nature of the problem and how research should be organized.
• Asking questions about structure, models, cases, values, and roles.
• Searching for material using text, electronic and pictorial information bases.
• Analyzing and interpreting all the information collected to identify and interpret patterns.

Organization and Representation Skills

• Deciding how to section and classify information to make it understandable.
• Deciding how information will be denoted (text, pictures, movies, audio, etc.).
• Determining how the information will be systematized (hierarchy, sequence) and how it will be linked.

Presentation Skills

• Mapping the design onto the presentation and implementing the ideas in multimedia.
• Attracting and maintaining the interests of the intended audiences.

Reflection Skills

• Evaluating the program and the process used to create it.
• Revising the design of the program using feedback

6.7 ADVANTAGES OF MULTIMEDIA

Multimedia activities encourage students to work in groups, express their knowledge in multiple ways, solve problems, revise their own work, and construct knowledge. The advantages of integrating multimedia in the classroom are many. Through participation in multimedia activities, students can learn:

• Real-world skills related to technology
• The value of teamwork
• Effective collaboration techniques
• The impact and importance of different media
• The challenges of communicating to different audiences
• How to present information in compelling ways
• Tailor information to the needs of the individual
• Techniques for synthesizing and analyzing complex content
• The importance of research, planning, and organization skills
• The significance of presentation and speaking skills
• How to accept and provide constructive feedback
• How to express their ideas creatively

Multimedia also helps in increasing learning effectiveness and is more attractive over traditional, lecture-based learning methods. It also offers system portability and frees the teacher from routine tasks.

6.8 EVALUATION OF MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES

Evaluation of Multimedia Resources: Currently there are many multimedia resource available both online and offline by way of CD/DVD format. Selecting the right multimedia resources is very important for teacher, students, and parents. In order to make a sensible decision of choosing the best available resource one must use certain criteria for evaluating the multimedia resources. A short version of evaluation framework
Georgiadou, E ,Economides,A.A., Michailidou,A.(2001) presented a framework for evaluating educational multimedia and the shorter version of the same is given below:

Some of the major aspects for evaluating multimedia resources are content characteristics (accuracy, educational value, authority, currency and uniqueness), Instructional characteristics (purpose, objectives, presentation of content, level of difficulty, the text, graphics, video, colour, sound, user participation/interactivity, assessment), Technical characteristics (technical needs to use, design and navigation, user support materials, ease of operation).
Detailed criteria for evaluating educational software/ multimedia based on the rubric by Kristine Miller and Jacqueline Bach (2001) is given below:

Software Evaluation Checklist Based on Rubric Developed by Kristin Miller and Jacqueline Bach, SAS in School ® Interns, Summer 2001
Criteria	Exemplary Characteristics	Rating
Instructional Content	Information is accurate, complete, and current Facts come from reliable sources which are clearly identified Content and context are consistent with the theme • All information relates to the stated purpose and learning goals Content moves learners beyond the basics and encourages higher levels of thinking; students are engaged in applying what they learn
Curriculum Connections	National and state standards are accessible within the product and may be easily linked to lessons Lists all prerequisite skills Uses all real world examples to make the instruction relevant for the learner Complies with all subject based guidelines
Graphics/Multimedia	Graphics are well designed and rendered to enhance learning Background and text are pleasing, compatible and easy to read Graphics are consistent, appropriate and designed to optimize learning Colors are used in an effective way Animation always complements learning Multimedia appears to be directly related to stated purpose and learning goals
Lay-out	Layout is clear and intuitive; learners can always find what they need It is easy to navigate through the information to find necessary features Layout is logical Layout is consistent on all pages
Technical Aspects	All links work properly Pages work in most common browsers: Netscape and Internet Explorer All multimedia resources work at all times Users are able to access web site or install software with ease Clear and complete directions are available for access or installation
Adaptability/Accessibility	Hyperlinks have ALT tags for rollover to assist sight-impaired learners Paragraphs and sections have clear and accurate informative headings Clear and clean fonts are used consistently • Content is culturally diverse Product accommodates unique learning styles and various ability levels
Engagement/Interactivity	Always requires learners to become actively engaged in order to learn Text and documents always employ multimedia enhancements to make learning interactive Provides appropriate feedback throughout the instruction Keenly motivates the learner to continue learning and master concepts
Teacher & Learner Support Materials	Program offers help at any stage Provides various ways to reach technical support Program provides students with additional resources such as web sites, bibliographies, etc. which are suitable to lesson Teachers and students can easily track a student's progress through feedback or other documentation
Assessment	Assessment methods are challenging, appropriate, and suited to learning goals Teachers can easily assess students' progress by evaluating the outcomes provided within the product
Age/Grade Appropriateness	Reading level is appropriate for target audience Product is suitable for the age and grade level Directions are clear and complete enough for students to perform required tasks
Flexibility	Learners can save at regular intervals and re-enter the instruction at any point All aspects of the software can be easily integrated into classroom activities The program features activities for use in whole class instruction, individual, or group learning experiences
Comments	Overall Rating

6.9 LET US SUM UP

 Meaning of Multimedia…..“Multimedia is the exciting combination of computer hardware and software that allows you to integrate video, animation, audio, graphics, and text resources to develop effective presentations on an affordable desktop computer” (Fenrich, 1997).

• Elements of Multimedia- The different building blocks of Multimedia are Text, Images and Graphics, Audio, Video, and Animation. Any multimedia application consists any or all of them.
• Types of Multimedia -  Multimedia may be broadly divided into linear and non-linear categories Linear and Non-linear Multimedia
• Developing Multimedia- This includes four areas. They are Planning and Costing ,Designing and Producing, Testing and Delivering
• Tools for Creating and Using Multimedia- Different tools can be used in preparing Multimedia Learning Material. They are  Digital Camera, Camcorder, Scanner, Interactive White Board and  Multimedia Projector
• Use of Multimedia in Education-Multimedia is used in many applications today. It has become integrated in all aspects of one’s life. It improves the way people relate with electronic information. The use and development of Multimedia material helps to develop the following skills-Project Management Skills, Research Skills, Organization and Representation Skills, Presentation Skills, Reflection Skills
• Advantages of Multimedia-Multimedia activities encourage students to work in groups, express their knowledge in multiple ways, solve problems, revise their own work, and construct knowledge. Multimedia also helps in increasing learning effectiveness and is more attractive over traditional, lecture-based learning methods. It also offers system portability and frees the teacher from routine tasks.
• Evaluation of Multimedia Resources-Evaluation provides evidence to help improve our programs and activities. Information on whether goals are being met and on how different aspects are working is essential to a continuous improvement process. Evaluation also frequently provides new insights or new information that was not anticipated. It helps in improving the Multimedia product and measures its effectiveness. The evaluation of the Multimedia material benefits the learners and helps to guarantee that they receive the highest quality Multimedia material.

6.10 UNIT END EXERCISES

1. Define Multimedia
2. Explain the elements of Multimedia
3. Develop Criteria and evaluate Multimedia resources
4. Discuss the principles of E-Learning and the Science of Instruction given by Clark and Mayer.

Relevance of Educational Psychology for Secondary Teachers

Educational psychology has contributed considerably to the creation of the modern system of education. The knowledge of educational psychology helps the teacher in the following ways:

1. To understand the Stages of Development: Psychology has clearly shown that human life passes through different stages of development before it reaches adulthood. They are infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Psychologists have also thoroughly studied the characteristic behaviour patterns in these different periods of life. Identification of these periods with different sets of characteristics and attributes as regards physical, mental and emotional development greatly help educationists to design curriculum and determine appropriate methods of teaching for students at different stages.
2. To Know the Learner: The child or the learner is the key factor in the teaching-learning process. Educational psychology helps the teacher to know his interests, attitudes, aptitudes and the other acquired or innate capacities and abilities; to know the stage of development linked with his social, emotional, intellectual, physical and aesthetic needs; to know his level of aspiration, his conscious and unconscious behaviour; his motivational and group behaviour; his conflicts, desires and other aspects of his mental health. So that perfect guidance and help can be provided and positive attitude towards the learner can be formed.
3. To Understand the Nature of Classroom Learning: Educational Psychology helps the teacher to adapt and adjust his teaching according to the level of the learners. A teacher is teaching in a class but a large number of students do not understand the subject-matter which is being taught. To deal with the students effectively in the class the teacher must have the knowledge of the various approaches to the learning process, principles, laws and factors affecting it then only he/she can apply remedial measures in the learning situation.
4. To Understand the Individual Differences: No two persons are exactly alike. Pupils differ in their level of intelligence, aptitudes, likes and dislikes and in other propensities and potentialities. There are gifted, backward, physically and mentally challenged children. Thus, psychology tells the teacher about the individual differences among the students in the class and the procedure, methodology and techniques to be adopted for them.
5. To Solve Classroom Problems: There are innumerable problems like truancy, bullying, peer pressure, ethnic tensions, cheating in tests etc. Educational Psychology helps to equip the teacher by studying the characteristics of the problem children, the dynamics of the group, behavioural characteristics and adjustments.
6. To develop Necessary Skills and Interest in Teaching: Educational psychology helps the teacher to acquire and develop necessary qualities and skills to deal with the problems created by the pupils, maintain a healthy atmosphere in the classroom and show concern regarding the progress of the child.
7. To Understand Effective Methods of Teaching: Educational Psychology has discovered several new approaches, principles. methods and techniques of teaching which are very helpful in today’s teaching-learning process. Educational psychology tells us how significant play and recreation are for the children and how play-way methods turn learning into an interesting task.
8. To Understand the Influence of Heredity and Environment on the Child: Educational psychology helps the teacher to know that the child is the product of heredity and environment. They are the two sides of a coin. Both play a prominent part in the all-round development of the child. While the child is born with a number of hereditary qualities, environment helps them to be modified according to the requirements of the society.
9. To Understand the Mental Health of the Child: Educational Psychology helps the teacher to know what are the factors responsible for the mental ill-health and maladjustment of a student and to suggest improvement thereof. Besides this, it also provides the teacher with necessary insight to improve his own mental status to cope up with the situation.
10. To Understand the Procedure of Curriculum Construction: Curriculum is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. Curriculum should be child-centred and fulfil the motives and psychological needs of the individual because child capacities differ from stage to stage. Educational psychology helps the teacher to suggest ways and means to curriculum framers to prepare sound and balanced curriculum for the children.
11. To Provide Guidance and Counselling: Today guidance to a child at every stage of life is needed because psychological abilities, interests and learning styles differ from person to person. Similarly, what courses of study the child should undertake in future is also a vital question. All these can be answered well if the teacher knows the psychology of children.
12. To Understand Principles of Evaluation and Assessment: Evaluation is an integral part of the teaching-learning process. How to test the potentialities of the child depends upon the evaluation techniques. The development of the different types of psychological tests for the evaluation of the individual is a distinct contribution of educational psychology.
13. To inculcate Positive and Creative Discipline: The slogan of the traditional teachers was “spare the rod and spoil the child.” Flogging the child was the chief instrument. Educational Psychology has replaced the repressive system with the preventive system. Now teachers adopt a cooperative and scientific approach to modify the behaviour of the students. Emphasis is laid on self-discipline through creative and constructive activities.
14. Educational Psychology and Research: Educational psychologists conduct research to improve the behaviour of human beings in the educational situation. For this purpose it helps in developing tools and devices to measure the performance and suggest remedial measures thereof.
15. To Know Himself/Herself: Educational Psychology helps the teacher to know about himself/herself. His/her own behaviour pattern, personality characteristics, likes and dislikes, motivation, anxiety, conflicts, adjustment etc. All this knowledge helps him in growing as a successful teacher.
16. Educational Psychology Helps in Professional Growth, Changing Attitude and Innovative Thinking: Inside the classroom, educational psychology has enabled the teacher to achieve proper conditioning of pupils by achieving and directing classroom programmes on human lives. Not only this, educational psychologists are busy in finding out innovations in the field of education. These innovations will bring about professional growth of the teacher.
In Conclusion, we can say that educational psychology has contributed considerably to the creation of the modern system of education. In teaching, we are dealing with three elements – the teacher, the student, and the subject. It has helped teachers, headmasters, administrators, inspectors, guidance and counselling workers, social workers to significantly develop an impartial and sympathetic attitude towards children and form them into integrated personalities.

Meaning, Nature and Scope of Educational Psychology

What is Psychology?

The word, ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means ‘soul’ and ‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus psychology was first defined as the ‘science of soul”.

According to earlier psychologists, the function of psychology was to study the nature, origin and destiny of the human soul. But soul is something metaphysical. It cannot be seen, observed and touched and we cannot make scientific experiments on soul.

In the 18^th century, psychology was understood as the ‘Science of Mind’. William James (1892) defined psychology as the science of mental processes. But the word ‘mind ‘ is also quite ambiguous as there was confusion regarding the nature and functions of mind.

Modern psychologists defined psychology as the “Science of Consciousness”. James Sully (1884) defined psychology as the “Science of the Inner World”. Wilhelm Wundt (1892) defined psychology as the science which studies the “internal experiences’. But there are three levels of consciousness – conscious, subconscious and the unconscious and so this definition also was not accepted by some.

Thus psychology first lost its soul, then its mind and then its consciousness. At present only its behaviour exists. William McDugall (1905) defined psychology as the “Science of Behaviour”, W.B. Pillsbury (1911) and J.B. Watson (1912) also defined psychology as the science of behavior.

Behaviour generally means overt activities which can observed and measured scientifically. But one’s behaviour is always influenced by his experiences. So when we study one’s behaviour we must also study his experiences.

Psychology should, therefore, be defined as a “science of behaviour and experiences on human beings” (B.F. Skinner)

According to Crow and Crow, “Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human relationship’”.

What is Educational Psychology?

Educational psychology is that branch of psychology in which the findings of psychology are applied in the field of education. It is the scientific study of human behaviour in educational setting.

According to Charles. E. Skinner, “Educational psychology deals with the behaviour of human beings in educational situations”.

Thus educational psychology is a behavioural science with two main references– human behaviour and education.

In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational Psychology is the science of Education”.

Education by all means is an attempt to mould and shape the behaviour of the pupil. It aims to produce desirable changes in him for the all-round development of his personality.

The essential knowledge and skill to do this job satisfactorily is supplied by Educational Psychology. In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational psychology helps the teacher to understand the development of his pupils, the range and limits of their capacities, the processes by which they learn and their social relationships.”

In this way, the work of the Educational Psychologists resembles with that of an Engineer, who is a technical expert. The Engineer supplies all the knowledge and skill essential for the accomplishment of the job satisfactorily… for example, construction of a bridge.

In the same way Educational Psychologists, who is a technical expert in the field of Education, supplies all the information, principles and techniques essential for understanding the behaviour of the pupil in response to educational environment and desired modification of his behaviour to bring an all-round development of his personality.

In this way, it is quite reasonable to call Educational Psychology as a science and technology of Education.

Thus, Educational Psychology concerned primarily with understanding the processes of teaching and learning that take place within formal environments and developing ways of improving those methods. It covers important topics like learning theories; teaching methods; motivation; cognitive, emotional, and moral development; and parent-child relationships etc.

In short, it is the scientific discipline that addresses the questions: “Why do some students learn more than others?” and “What can be done to improve that learning?”

NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Its nature is scientific as it has been accepted that it is a Science of Education. We can summarize the nature of Educational Psychology in the following ways:

1. Educational Psychology is a science. (Science is a branch of study concerned with observation of facts and establishment of verifiable general laws. Science employs certain objective methods for the collection of data. It has its objectives of understanding, explaining, predicting and control of facts.) Like any other science, educational psychology has also developed objective methods of collection of data. It also aims at understanding, predicting and controlling human behaviour.

2. Educational Psychology is a natural science. An educational psychologist conducts his investigations, gathers his data and reaches his conclusions in exactly the same manner as physicist or the biologist.

3. Educational psychology is a social science. Like the sociologist, anthropologist, economist or political scientist, the educational psychologist studies human beings and their sociability.

4. Educational psychology is a positive science. Normative science like Logic or Ethics deals with facts as they ought to be. A positive science deals with facts as they are or as they operate. Educational psychology studies the child’s behaviour as it is, not, as it ought to be. So it is a positive science.

5. Educational psychology is an applied science. It is the application of psychological principles in the field of education. By applying the principles and techniques of psychology, it tries to study the behaviour and experiences of the pupils. As a branch of psychology it is parallel to any other applied psychology. For example, educational psychology draws heavily facts from such areas as developmental psychology, clinical psychology, abnormal psychology and social psychology.

6. Educational psychology is a developing or growing science. It is concerned with new and ever new researches. As research findings accumulate, educational psychologists get better insight into the child’s nature and behaviour.

W.A. Kelly (1941) listed the nature of Educational Psychology as follows:
i. To give a knowledge of the nature of the child
ii. To give understanding of the nature, aims and purposes of education
iii. To give understanding of the scientific methods and procedures which have been used in arriving at the facts and principles of educational psychology
iv. To present the principles and techniques of learning and teaching
v. To give training in methods of measuring abilities and achievement in school subjects
vi. To give a knowledge of the growth and development of children
vii. To assist in the better adjustment of children and to help them to prevent maladjustment
viii. To study the educational significance and control of emotions and
ix. To give an understanding of the principles and techniques of correct training.
Thus, educational psychology is an applied, positive, social, specific and practical science. While general science deals with behaviour of the individuals in various spheres, educational psychology studies the behaviour of the individual in educational sphere only.

SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The scope of educational psychology is ever-growing due to constantly researches in this field. The following factors will indicate the scope of educational psychology:

1. The Learner. The subject-matter of educational psychology is knitted around the learner. Therefore, the need of knowing the learner and the techniques of knowing him well. The topics include – the innate abilities and capacities of the individuals, individual differences and their measurements, the overt, covert, conscious as well as unconscious behaviour of the learner, the characteristics of his growth and development and each stage beginning from childhood to adulthood.

2. The Learning Experiences. Educational Psychology helps in deciding what learning experiences are desirable, at what stage of the growth and development of the learner, so that these experiences can be acquired with a greater ease and satisfaction.

3. Learning process: After knowing the learner and deciding what learning experiences are to be provided, Educational Psychology moves on to the laws, principles and theories of learning. Other items in the learning process are remembering and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and reasoning, problem solving, transfer of learning, ways and means of effective learning etc.

4. Learning Situation or Environment. Here we deal with the environmental factors and learning situations which come midway between the learner and the teacher. Topics like classroom climate and group dynamics, techniques and aids that facilitate learning and evaluation, techniques and practices, guidance and counselling etc. For the smooth functioning of the teaching-learning process.

5. The Teacher: The teacher is a potent force is any scheme of teaching and learning process. It discusses the role of the teacher. It emphasizes the need of ‘knowing thyself’ for a teacher to play his role properly in the process of education. His conflicts, motivation. Anxiety, adjustment, level of aspiration etc. It throws light on the essential personality traits, interests, aptitudes, the characteristics of effective teaching etc so as to inspire him for becoming a successful teacher.

Though the entire scope of Educational Psychology is included in the above mentioned five key-factors, it may be further expanded by adding the following:

6. It studies Human Behaviour in educational situations. Psychology is the study of behaviour, and education deals with the modification of behaviour; hence, educational psychology pervades the whole field of education.

7. It studies the Growth and Development of the child. How a child passes through the various stages of growth and what are the characteristics of each stage are included in the study of educational psychology.

8. To what extent Heredity and Environment contribute towards the growth of the individual, and how this knowledge can be made use of for bringing about the optimum development of the child; form a salient feature of the scope of educational psychology.

9. Educational psychology deals with the Nature and Development of the Personality of an individual. In fact, education has been defined as the all-round development of the personality of an individual; personality development also implies a well-adjusted personality.

10. It studies Individual Difference: Every individual differs from every other individual. It is one of the fundamental facts of human nature which have been brought to light by educational psychology. This one fact has revolutionalised the concept and process of education.

11. It studies the nature Intelligence and its Measurement. This is of utmost importance for a teacher.

12. It Provides Guidance and Counselling: Education is nothing but providing guidance to the growing child.

We can conclude by saying that Educational Psychology is narrower in scope than general psychology. While general psychology deals with the behaviour of the individual in a general way, educational psychology in concerned with the behaviour of the learner in an educational setting.

Theories of Intelligence

Psychologists have attempted to understand the structure of intelligence for which they have formulated theories. Among the important theories of intelligence, we shall study three of them.

1. Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory
2. Guilford’s Theory of Structure of Intellect (S. I Model)
3. Thurston’s Group Factor Theory

1. Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory:

The English psychologist, Charles Spearman (1863-1945), in 1904 proposed his theory of intelligence called two-factor theory. According to him intellectual abilities are comprised of two factors, namely; the general ability known as G-factor and specific Abilities known as S-factors. The performance by the individual is determined by the G-factor and the S-factors. The total intelligence of the individual is the sum total of the G-factor and the S-factors. The performance of a particular task depends on the ‘G’ factor or general ability and the particular ‘S’ factor or specific ability.

Characteristics of ‘G’ Factor:

1. It is universal inborn ability.
2. It is general mental energy.
3. It is constant.
4. The amount of ‘g’ differs from individual to individual.
5. It is used in every activity of life.
6. Greater the ‘g’ in an individual, greater is his success in life.

Characteristics of ‘S’ Factor:

1. It is learned and acquired in the environment.
2. It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.
3. Individuals differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.

‘G’ factor represents Native Intelligence thus when we respond to any situation or perform an intellectual task, our general mental ability or ‘G’ factor is mainly responsible for it and our specific ability in that particular task is responsible for the rest.

There are a large number of specific abilities such as ability to draw inferences, ability to complete sentences, ability to code message etc.

Fig: Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory or Eclectic Theory

Different individuals differed both in their ‘G’ as well as ‘S’ factors. For e.g. an individual’s performance in literature is partly due to his general intelligence and partly due some specific aptitude for his language, i.e. G+S1. In mathematics his performance may be the result of G+S2. In drawing, it may be due to G+S3 and in social sciences; it may be due to G+S4 and so on. Thus the factor ‘G’ is present in all specific activities.

Educational Implications and relevance of Spearman’s Two –Factor Theory:

1. The theory gives a better insight to the teacher about the nature of intelligence.

2. The general ability differs from individual to individual.

3. The specific abilities also differ from individual to individual.

4. ‘S’ factor varies in degrees. Therefore, it can be modified by learning or habitual training

5. A child requires different amounts of ‘G’ and ‘S’ factors for achieving success in different Subjects.

6. We require a high quality of ‘G’ factor for our success in life.

7. Both ‘G’ and ‘S’ have a high correlation.

8. This theory could be used to guide, construction of a set of ability test

Conclusion: Thus we see that spearman did not believe in the concept that mental power as independent of one another. According to him they are unitary.

2. Guildford’s Structure of Intelligence (SI Model)

J.P. Guilford developed a model of intelligence (1966) using factor analysis. He outlines topography of the structure of intellect, providing an integrated rationale for describing the many dimension of intellectual performance. He suggests that there are three basic parameters along which any intellectual activity takes place. These are:

1. Operations – the act of thinking

2. Contents – the terms in which we think, and

3. Products – the ideas we come up with.

Guilford identified 5 operations, 5 contents and 6 products. Thus the maximum number of factors in terms of the different possible combination s of these dimensions will be 5x5x6 = 150.

1. Operations: It consists of five major groups of intellectual abilities.

1. Cognition: It refers to discovery, rediscovery or recognition.
2. Memory: Simply remembering what was once known.
3. Convergent Thinking: This type of thinking, by reasoning, results in useful solution to problems.
4. Divergent Thinking: This is thinking in different directions, seeking and searching some variety and novelty.
5. Evaluation: It is reaching decisions or making judgments about information.

2. Content: A Second way of classifying the intellectual factor is according to the kind of material or content involved. It involves five factors:

1. Visual Content: It is concrete material which is perceived through our senses, i.e. size, form, colour, etc.
2. Auditory Content: It consists of language, speech, sounds, music and words
3. Symbolic Content: It is composed of letters, digits, and other conventional signs.
4. Semantic Content: It is in the forms of verbal meanings or ideas which we get from others.
5. Behavioural Content: It means social behaviour in society.

3. Products: When a certain operation is applied to certain kind of content as many as six kinds of products may be involved.

1. Units: Understanding the meaning of words, visual, auditory and symbolic units.
2. Classes: It means classification of words and ideas.
3. Relations: It implies discovering relations of words and ideas.
4. Systems: The ability to structure objects in space and to structure symbolic elements and to formulate problems.
5. Transformation: The ability to look into the future lines of development or to suggest changes in the existing situations.
6. Implications: The ability to utilize present information for future ends.

Educational Implication and relevance of SI Model:

1. This theory about the idea that the brain of a child is like a computer, who acquires, stores and uses information.

2. It provides knowledge about the specific ability of the students to guide them in the right direction.

3. SI Model is useful in finding out the reasons of the unsatisfactory performance of the students in spite of their adequate intelligence.

4. This model points out that for understanding higher mental processes like thinking some drastic modifications could be needed in our curriculum or method of instruction.

5. This model has explored 150 intellectual abilities and this enables us to find out whether we are paying sufficient attention to each one of them or not and if not how to improve.

6. This model guides us to device enrichment programmes for the gifted children.

7. It stresses that learning of specific skills should be our focus of attention.

8. SI Model is very useful in constructing tests of various types for different age groups.

9. This concept of Guildford will prove useful in our future research in the areas of learning, memory, problem-solving etc.

10. This model discovered many abilities which were not known before.

11. It is very useful for vocational training.

Conclusion: Guildford’s theory of Intelligence seems to be the most comprehensive theory as it attempts to take into considerations all possible aspects of intellectual activity.

3. Thurston’s Group Factor Theory

Louis Thurston came out with the group factor theory (1937) saying that Intelligence is a cluster of abilities. These mental operations then constitute a group. A second group of mental operations has its own unifying Primary factor; a third group has a third Primary factor and so on. Each of them has its own primary factor. Each of these primary factors is said to be relatively independent of others. He pointed out that there were Seven Primary Mental Abilities and later on added two more. They are:

1. Verbal comprehension Factor. This factor involves a person’s ability to understand verbal material. It is measured by tests such as vocabulary and reading comprehension.
2. Verbal fluency Factor. This ability is involved in rapidly producing words, sentences, and other verbal material. It is measured by tests such as one that requires the examinee to produce as many words as possible beginning with a particular letter in a short amount of time.
3. Numerical Factor. This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic computation and in solving simple arithmetic word problems.
4. Perceptual speed Factor. This ability is involved in proofreading and in rapid recognition of letters and numbers. It is measured by tests such as those requiring the crossing out of As in a long string of letters or in tests requiring recognition of which of several pictures at the right is identical to the picture at the left.
5. Inductive reasoning Factor. This ability requires generalization—reasoning from the specific to the general. It is measured by tests, such as letter series, number series, and word classifications, in which the examinee must indicate which of several words does not belong with the others.
6. Spatial visualization Factor. This ability is involved in visualizing shapes, rotations of objects, and how pieces of a puzzle fit together. An example of a test would be the presentation of a geometric form followed by several other geometric forms. Each of the forms that follows the first is either the same rotated by some rigid transformation or the mirror image of the first form in rotation. The examinee has to indicate which of the forms at the right is a rotated version of the form at the left, rather than a mirror image.
7. Memory Factor. It means the ability to recall and associate previously learned items effectively or memorize quickly.

Later on other factors were added on like Deductive Reasoning (P) – Ability to use the generalized results correctly and Problem solving ability factor (PS) -Ability to solve problem independently.

Educational Significance and Implications

1. Thurston contributed greatly to the measurement of attitudes. In psychology, the ‘Thurston scale’ developed in 1928 was the first formal techniques for measuring of attitudes.
2. Thurston’s theory of intelligence was a major influence on later theories of multiple intelligences, such as those of Guilford, Gardner, and Sternberg.
3. Thurston has been noted for developing a comparative judgment scaling technique. The rank scale can be used to rank all possible feelings related to an issue and to categorize people expressing an opinion based on the rank of that opinion. It is used today mainly in basic research.
4. Thurston held that if the individual wants to perform any particular activity, one or more of these factors or abilities are involved. Some of them are more important than others.