Measuring of Intelligence

Intelligence is a person’s capacity to (1) acquire knowledge (i.e. learn and understand), (2) apply knowledge (solve problems), and (3) engage in abstract reasoning.  It is the power of one’s intellect, and as such is clearly a very important aspect of one’s overall well-being.  Psychologists have attempted to measure it for well over a century.

The attempt to measure human intelligence had begun in the 19^th century itself. Alfred Binet in collaboration with Theodore Simon developed the first intelligence test in 1905. The Binet-Simon Scale contained 30 items. The scale was revised many times by Binet. In 1916, the scale was revised by Lewis M. Terman of Stanford University and is known as Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale.

Another important event in the development of intelligence test was the formation of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) published in 1955 and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). During the First World War time A.S. Otis developed a group test of intelligence known as Army Alpha Intelligence Examination.

Intelligence being only a concept or an abstraction can’t be measured in physical units like a length of cloth or temperature of the body rather we measure an individual’s intelligence by means of what we call Intelligence Tests.

The most commonly known intelligence tests fall into three categories. Namely: 1. Individual Tests, 2. Group Tests, and 3. Performance Tests of Intelligence.

Intelligence tests may also be classified as Verbal Tests and Non-verbal tests. In verbal tests, the person is asked to read or write. In Non-verbal tests, the person is required to perform some acts or to do some practical work.

The Concept of C.A, M.A and I.Q:

Some of the basic expressions for the measurement of Intelligence are i) Chronological Age (C.A), ii) Mental Age (M.A) and iii) Intelligence Quotient (I.Q).

1. Chronological Age (C.A):

This is the physical age of a person counted from the date and time of his birth. It is counted in terms of years, months and hours etc.

2. Mental Age (M.A):

Binet conceived the idea of Mental Age (M.A.) to measure intelligence. Tests were made for different age levels. This is an index of intelligence rank. A child’s mental age can be measured from his performance on an intelligence test. If a test was passed by 60-90% of children of given age, Binet accepted it for that age level. A child who successfully perform all the tasks thus accepted for the five year old child is taken to have a mental age of five, whatever his Chronological Age (C.A.) may be. If he is five years old chronologically too he is rated as normal or average. A seven year old child having a M.A. of six is considered as mental deficient; but if he has a M.A. of eight then he is said to be above average in intelligence.

3. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is the score you get on an intelligence test. Originally, it was a quotient (a ratio):  IQ= MA/CA x 100 [MA is mental age, CA is chronological age]. Today, scores are calibrated against norms of actual population scores.

IQ	Classification
Below 70 (2.2%)	Mentally Retarded or Feeble Minded (50-69: Morons, 25-49: Imbeciles, Below 25: Idiots)
70 – 79 (6.7%)	Borderline
80 – 89 (16.1%)	Dull – low average
90 – 109 (50%)	Average
110 – 119 (16.1%)	Superior
120 – 139 (6.7%)	Very Superior
140 and above	Genius

Verbal and Non-verbal Tests

i. Verbal tests. This denotes tests in which questions are asked or oral or in written form of a given language, for which answers also have to be given in oral or written language. These tests are not intended for, and cannot be used in the case of illiterates and small children, since such people lack linguistic ability.

ii. Non-verbal tests. These include tests that do not require the use of language, but could be manipulated using figures, pictures, blocks or even other objects. Examples of it are Army Beta Intelligence Test, Pidgon’s non-verbal tests and Raven’s Progressive Matrices. Their advantage is that they can be used for testing subjects who lack language ability.

Difference between Verbal test and Non-verbal test

Sl.No.	Verbal Test	Non-verbal Test
1.	It makes use of language	It makes use of pictures and designs
	The abilities measured are verbal reasoning, memory and numerical reasoning	The abilities measured are spatial ability, speed and induction
	It cannot be used for testing individuals who lack language ability	Individuals who lack language ability also can be tests by it.
	It is less expensive	It is more expensive
	The results of the tests are much affected by schooling	The results of the tests are less affected by schooling
	Standardization is easy	Standardization is difficult
7.	Administration and scoring are easy	Administration and scoring are difficult

Individual and Group Tests

i) Individual Tests. These tests are administered to one individual at a time. They include performance tests as well as tests that require linguistic ability. Some examples of these are: Stanford Binet Intelligence Tests, Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence Test, Koh’s Block Design Tests, etc. These tests are particularly appropriate for testing individuals, but they are not financially feasible as they are expensive. In addition to this they are time consuming. Administration of such tests require more expert training also.

ii) Group Tests. In this category the tests are administered upon a large number of examinees simultaneously. The group Intelligence test of the State Bureau of Psychology is an example. Such tests are more objective and less expensive. But in these tests no rapport between the subject and the examiner is established. Hence compared to individual tests, they are less useful for solving problems of individuals. Nevertheless, they have proved really useful for the purpose of educational and vocational guidance.

Difference between Individual and Group Tests

No.	Individual Test	Group Test
1.	Tests intelligence of an individual at a time	Tests intelligence of a group at a time
2.	Useful for children of every age	Not useful for children of lower age groups
3.	Time consuming	Time saving
4.	Uneconomic in terms of money and labour	Economic in terms of money and labour
5.	Administration is not easy	Administration is easy
6.	Interest of the individual is assured	Interest of the individual is not assured
7.	Results can be judged then and there	Results cannot be judged them and there

Performance Tests of Intelligence.

These tests measure intelligence through some sort of performance of the individual. The performances are in the form of concrete activities that demand for the ability to see relations and solve problems. For measuring intelligence of persons with language handicap arising out of deafness or speech defect or cultural variations, this type of tests are widely used. Obviously, this is a non-verbal test. Some of these are described below.

1. The Pinter-Paterson Performance Scale. This has been the first major attempt to develop a standardized series of performance tests. Items in the test were taken from the work of Seguin Form Board, Healy Picture Completion Test, Knox Form Board, Ship test, Cube Test etc. The scale consists of fifteen sub-tests. For most purposes a short scale consisting of ten tests are being employed.
2. The Arthur Performance Scale. This consists of five tests. They are Know Cube, Seguin Form Board, Porteus Mazes, Healy Picture Completion Test and Arthur Stencil Design Test. This scale is intended for young children.
3. Bhatia’s Performance Test. Koh’s Black Design Test, Alexander Pass Along Test, Pattern Drawing Test, Immediate Memory of Sounds and Picture Completion Test are four sub-tests included in this battery. In the first among these, designs printed in 10 cards in increasing difficulty are to be arranged using coloured cubes. Speed is the factor contributing to high score. In the second, graded problems are presented. The coloured boxes are arranged in the reverse order and the individual is to rearrange it to give the shape given in the card. Time is one important factor here also. In the pattern drawing test eight diagrams of increasing order of difficulty are to be drawn without lifting the pencil and repeating the lines. In the memory test, consonants or digits are to be repeated in the same order first and then backwards. Five pictures cut out into 2,4,6 or 12 parts are to be assembled in the shortest possible time to gain maximum scores. The total score on the whole test is then determined and it is converted into IQ’s using the tables provided in the test manual.
4. Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test. It is a non-verbal test and was developed in the U.K. The test has been designed to evaluate the subject’s ability to see the relationship between Geometric figures/designs. It can be administered individually as well as in a group. The test has three forms:

a) Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices: It consists of 60 matrices divided into 5 sets a, b, c, d, e of 12 problems each. These problems are arranged in progressively increasing order of difficulty. The test can be used for persons in the age group of 6 years and 65 years.

b) Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices: It consists of 36 matrices. It can be administered to one who is average in intellectual capacities. It can be used for person between 111/2 years to 40 years.

c) Raven’s Coloured progressive Matrices: It has 3 sets A, AB, B consisting of 12 matrices in each set (36). It can be used in the age group of 5 ½ yrs. to 11 years and beyond 65 years of age.

Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test is most popular and widely used for measuring intelligence. Perceptual and reasoning ability are mainly measured in this type of test.

5. Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence Scale (WBIS). This scale, published in 1939, was developed and standardized by David Wechsler of Bellevue Psychiatric Hospital. The test was first revised in 1955 and three different scales come into existence. They are:

i) Wechsler Pre-schools and Primary School Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI) – designed for the children belonging to the age group 4 to 6.

ii) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) – designed for school children in the age group of 6 to 16 years.

iii) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) – designed for adults in the age group of 16 to 64 years.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is an individual test which has the unique quality of being simultaneously a verbal as well as a performance scale. The scale consists of eleven sub-tests. Six sub-tests make up the verbal scale and remaining five comprise the performance scale. These tests are listed below in the order in which they are administered.

1. Verbal Scale:

a) Test of general information

b) Test of general comprehension

c) Test of arithmetic reasoning

d) Test of distinction between similarities

e) Test of digit span

f) Test of vocabulary

2. Performance Scale:

a) Block Design Test

b) Digit Symbol Test

c) Object Assembling Test

d) Picture Arrangement Test

e) Picture Completion Test

The scores on these sub-tests are added together to assess the subject’s intelligence.

Advantages of Intelligence Tests

1. Intelligence tests are used for the purpose of making selection of suitable candidate for admission to courses that demand different levels of intelligence.
2. Intelligence tests help the teacher to classify students into homogeneous groups for providing individualized instruction.
3. Scores obtained in intelligence tests can motivate individuals to reach higher levels in the ladder.
4. Intelligence tests help in revealing the potentialities of an individual and in this way make possible the prediction of one’s success in a particular field.
5. Intelligence tests help to detect the exceptional children such as gifted, backward and mentally retarded. This in turn helps the teacher organize appropriate compensatory services.
6. Intelligence tests help in the diagnosis of problematic behavior of the child.
7. Intelligence testing has been proved to be very useful in psychological, sociological and educational research.

Limitations of Intelligence Tests

1. Intelligence tests label some students as superior and the others as inferior. This type of knowledge may create so many psychological problems.
2. A teachers’ knowledge of the intelligence of his pupils may result in slackness on his part. He may put the entire responsibility of a pupil’s failure on his inferior intelligence, while an intelligent student may be left to work for himself.
3. Intelligence tests results have been misused to uphold the theory of royal blood, segregation and sectarian outlook.

Abilities measured by intelligence tests

1. Numerical reasoning
2. Analogies
3. Classification
4. Spatial relations
5. Logical selection
6. Synonyms
7. Practical judgement
8. Verbal comprehension
9. Memory
10. Problem solving

The Secret of Happiness

By: Prof. Deepak Sharma

What is your deepest desire, the one you experience in the most secret recess of your soul?  What is the purpose of the choices you make every day?  What is the basic motivation of all your actions?  HAPPINESS!  It is the ultimate goal and the deepest longing of a human heart.  Everyone wants to be happy, even the person who is about to take his or her life.  All want to be happy:  The man who gets married and the one who refuses to do so; the woman who wants to give birth to children and the one who does not want any; the young man who works hard and the one who is lazy; the girl who loves and the one who hates; the generous child and the greedy one; the rich and the poor.  From one end of the world to the other all are trying to find the treasure of happiness.

In this frantic search, people often mistake pleasure for happiness.  Have you heard this strange story:  “I’m fed up with this river,” a little fish complained to a bigger one. “Life here is so dull, the same water, the same old companions, the same kind of food day after day… I think the other river must be exciting!”  “I’m not quite sure,” responded the older fish thoughtfully.  “Here we have plenty of friends, no shortage of food, neither any lack of water.”  Without heeding the words of the big fish, she hopped right up the bank and was thrilled to see nearby a large pond.  “Ah!”  This was what I had been looking for all my life!”  So saying she leaped and landed in the open mouth of a huge fish.

Many of you are also familiar with the story of a king who was told by a sage that to find happiness, he has to wear the shirt of a happy man. The king sent out messengers in search of a happy man. After many days of search, one of them was directed to a farmer who people said lived an extremely happy life. Upon contacting him, the messenger realised that the happy man had no shirt. Strange! Isn’t it?

Happiness is not in anything, in any place or in any person out there.  Happiness comes from within. People who are happy choose to be happy. It is the result of how we choose to let ourselves feel, instead of how we let the world and other people make us feel. When we are happy and when we smile, we attract people. It is in your correct attitude.  The happiness we seek is very much inside us, in our minds, in our thinking. It is not in the external things or experiences, but the enjoyment of our thoughts and feelings.

A traveller asked a shepherd, “What kind of weather are we going to have today?” The shepherd replied, “The kind of weather I like.” The traveller retorted,  “How do you know it will be the kind of weather you like?” The shepherd calmly answered, “Having found out, sir, I cannot always get what I like, I have learned always to like what I get. So I am quite sure we will have the kind of weather I like.” So, in other words, happiness doesn’t depend on what you have, but it does depend on how you feel toward what you have. You can be happy with little and miserable with much.  I remember the words of Nathaniel Hawthorne who said, “Happiness is like a butterfly which, when pursued, is always beyond our grasp, but, if you will sit down quietly, may alight upon you.”

Here are some prescriptions for happiness:

1. Decide to be Happy. Make up your mind to be happy. I am going to be happy today, at this moment. According to John Powell, ‘happiness is an inside job’. Only I can make myself happy or unhappy.
2. Make the best of your circumstances. No one has everything and everyone has something of sorrow intermingled with the gladness of life. The trick is to make the laughter outweigh the tears. Don’t take yourself too seriously.
3. Be honest with yourself. Become aware of what you really are, not what you ought to be. Your real self is the stuff out of which you have to fashion your happiness. Recognize your strengths and weaknesses.
4. Be a goal-oriented person. People often tend to drift aimlessly in life. If you throw a dry stick into a pond, it will float. Now if a wind comes from the north it will move to the south. And if a wind blows from the west, the stick will move to the east. Some people are like this dry stick, drifting aimlessly in life. Answer this question honestly: What do you really want from your life? One way to become a goal-oriented person is to discover the deepest longing of your heart, and make the fulfilment of this longing the goal of your life. Then direct all your energies to the realization of this goal.
5. Learn to manage your feelings. Feelings are an important part of your life. It is your feelings that make you rich and colourful Who likes a dry intellectual who has no feelings? But feelings can be dangerous. They can cloud your perception. It has been said that if you don’t like a teacher you will not learn anything from her even if she were the best teacher in the world. But if you like a teacher you will learn a lot from her even if she were a very poor teacher. How are we to manage our feelings? First of all, become aware of your feelings. Then be comfortable with them. Since feelings are morally neither good nor bad, that is, they are neither virtues nor vices, one can be comfortable with all feelings. Finally, express them appropriately and constructively, that is, in a way which is appropriate to the persons involved and the situation, and which will not do harm to anybody.
6. Be your own best friend. One needs to accept oneself, appreciate oneself and have a positive regard for oneself. It is important to realize that love of self is very different from selfishness. Actually a selfish person does not love himself/herself. That is why a selfish person often behaves in a way that makes him/her unhappy. Now if a person loves himself/herself he/she will not do things that will make him/her unhappy … To love oneself is a good thing ‘and can lead to happiness.
7. Cultivate some good friendships. Friendship is one of the greatest blessings in a person’s life. The experience of deep love in friendship will enable one to accept oneself, to discover oneself and develop oneself. It will make one more loving towards others. It will make one’s faith in God’s love more real. It takes a lot of time and effort to establish and sustain good friendships.
8. Be a lover of people. In order to succeed in life, you really need to love people. Since hate poisons the soul, do not cherish enmities and grudges. And if you have genuine love for people, you will learn their language and study their culture and become familiar with their customs and tradition. This will make you feel at home with people. And that will be a source of happiness.
9. Develop a saving sense of humour. You need to cultivate the habit of looking at the lighter, brighter side of things and events. There is a Chinese saying: “If you do not have a smile, don’t open a shop. You will not sell anything. “

Since you have only one life to live, live it happily. Don’t let your neighbor set your standards. Learn to be happy with what you have and don’t hold post-mortems, i.e., spending your life brooding over sorrows and mistakes. Remember, you can’t please everybody, but you can always do something for those less fortunate than yourself which is the best prescription for happiness.

Erickson’s Theory of Psycho-Social Development

Prof. Deepak Sharma

Erik Erickson (1902 – 1994): Theory of Psycho-Social Development 

• Born – June 15,1902 Frankfurt, Germany
• Died – May 12, 1994 Massachusetts, USA
• Nationality – American/ German
• Fields – Developmental Psychology
• Influences – Sigmund Freud/ Anna Freud
• Coined the term – Lifespan Development
• Known as – The Father of Psycho-social Development

• He was an artist and a teacher in the late 1920s when he met Anna Freud, an Austrian psychoanalyst. With Anna’s encouragement, he began to study child psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute.
• He immigrated to the US in 1933 and taught at Yale and Harvard University.

• It was at this point in his life that he became interested in the influence of society and culture on child development. To satisfy his curiosity, he studied groups of American Indian Children to help formulate his theories. Studying these children enabled him to correlate personality growth with parental and societal values.
• He studied groups of Aboriginal children to learn about the influence of society and culture on child development. From this, he developed a number of theories, the most famous being his psycho-social development.

• He believed that humans have to resolve different conflicts as they progress through each stage of development in the life cycle.

• Erickson’s theory consists of eight stages of development. Each stage is characterized by a different conflict that must be resolved by the individual. If a person is unable to resolve a conflict at a particular stage, they will be confront and struggle with it later in life.

Psycho-social Development

• According to Erikson – Each part of the personality has a particular time in the life span when it must develop, if it is going to develop at all. If it failed to developed on schedule, the rest of the development is unfavorably altered. The individual is then hindered from dealing effectively with reality.

Stage 1: Infancy -Trust vs. Mistrust

• Age- Birth to 18 months
• Conflict – Trust vs. Mistrust
• Relationship – Mother
• Strength – Hope
• Question- Can I trust the world?
• Key Event- Feeding
• Children are completely dependent on others
• Trust: Established when babies given adequate warmth, touching, love, and physical care-Dependable & Reliable.
• Mistrust: Caused by inadequate or unpredictable care and by cold, indifferent, and rejecting parents-Undependable, Unpredictable & Dangerous. 

Stage 2- Early Childhood – Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

• Age- 18 month to 3 years
• Conflict- Autonomy vs. Shame
• Relationship- Parents
• Strength- Will
• Question- Is it ok to be me?
• Key Event- Toilet Training
• Autonomy: Doing things for themselves such as body control & making choices.  – Secure and confident self.
• Shame: Overprotective or ridiculing parents may cause children to doubt abilities and feel shameful about their actions- Inadequacy & self doubt. 

Stage 3- Preschool – Initiative vs. Guilt

• Age- 3 years to 6 years
• Conflict- Initiative vs. Guilt
• Relationship- Family
• Strength- Purpose
• Question- Is it okay for me to do, move & act?
• Key Event- Independence
• Initiative: Parents reinforce via giving children freedom to play, use imagination, and ask questions- Creative, Constructive.
• Guilt: May occur if parents criticize, prevent play, or discourage a child’s questions- Always being wrong, Failed to explore world.
• Initiative and Guilt should be balanced in order to have moral judgment. 

Stage 4- School Age – Industry vs. Inferiority

• Age- 6 years to 12 years
• Conflict- Industry vs. Inferiority
• Relationship- Neighbors, School
• Strength- Competence
• Question- Can I make it in the world of people and things?
• Key Event- School
• Children’s have to cope with new social and academic demands
• Industry: Occurs when child is praised for productive activities, such as painting and building- Sense of competence
• Inferiority: Occurs if child’s efforts are regarded as messy or inadequate- Weak sense of self, Incapable to take responsibility 

Stage 5- Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion

• Age- 12 years to 18 years
• Conflict- Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Relationship- Peers, Role Model
• Strength- Fidelity
• Question- Who am I? What can I be?
• Key Event- Peer relationships
• Children learn a number of different roles.
• Identity: One’s organization of individual drives, abilities, beliefs, and experience into consistent image of self. Who we are.
• Role Confusion: Failure to establish an individual identity separate from the family and having no peer relationships and plans for an occupation- Ego diffusion 

Stage 6- Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation

• Age- 19 years to 40 years
• Conflict- Intimacy vs. Isolation
• Relationship- Friends, Partners
• Strength- Love
• Question- Can I love?
• Key Event- Love relationships
• Start of families
• Intimacy: Ability to care about others and to share experiences with them- Strong relationship
• Isolation: Feeling alone and uncared for in life- Loneliness

Stage 7- Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation

• Age- 40 years to 65 years
• Conflict- Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Relationship- Household, Workmates
• Strength- Care
• Question- Can I make my life count?
• Key Event- Parenting
• Primary developmental task is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generation.
• Generativity: Interest in guiding the next generation- Social involvement, Parenting
• Stagnation: When one is only concerned with one’s own needs and comforts- Material possession, Physical well being, Non productive 

Stage 8- Maturity: Integrity vs. Despair

• Age- 65 years to Death
• Conflict- Integrity vs. Despair
• Relationship- Mankind, My kind
• Strength- Wisdom
• Question- Is it ok to have been me?
• Key Event-Reflecting on and acceptance of one’s life
• In the last stages of life individuals look back over their lives and judge them.
• Integrity: Self-respect; developed when people have lived richly and responsibly- Feeling of wisdom and meaning
• Despair: Occurs when previous life events are viewed with regret; experiences heartache and remorse- Regret, Bitterness 

Erickson’s Contribution

• He made major contributions in the area of child development by studying groups of Native American children and developed the concept of identity crisis.
• He was concerned with the relationship between society/culture and child development, which he termed “psychosocial development”.
• This interest led him to develop the Eight Stages of Development.
• In each stage, the individual encounters a developmental crisis.
• In order to move on to the next stage, the individual must resolve the crisis. 

Criticism of Erickson

• Ambiguous terms and concepts
• Lack of precision
• Some terms are not easily measured empirically
• Experiences in stage may only apply to males
• Identity crisis may only apply to those affluent enough to explore identities

Inclusive Education

                              By: Prof. Deepak Sharma

Introduction: Inclusive Education (Education for All) is a process of addressing and responding to diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion within and from education. It involves changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with a common vision which covers all children of appropriate age range and a conviction that it is the responsibility of the regular system to educate all children. Inclusive Education starts with the belief that we all can learn, that we are all different, that we all belong to, and have a role in the society and that differences can and should be valued.

Objectives of policies on Inclusive Education

• The governments have to give the highest policy and budgetary priority to improve their education systems to enable them to include all children regardless of individual differences or difficulties.
• The governments have to adopt as a matter of law or policy the principle of inclusive education, enrolling all children in regular schools unless there are compelling reasons for doing otherwise.
• The training programmes for the teachers have to include the education of disabled children.
• All children have access to general education system, to expand the coverage to reach the unreached population.

The IEDC Scheme, which is being implemented in over 20,000 schools in India covering over 1,20,000 children with disabilities. aims to provide educational  opportunities for children with mild and moderate disabilities in general schools.

• The scheme includes pre-school training, counselling for parent, allowance for books and stationery, uniforms, transport, reader and escort, hostel facilities and assistive devices.
• Education has focused on enrollment of Children with Special Needs (CWSN) as schools are resistant to admitting most CWSN.
• IEDC was successful in creating awareness on the importance of integrating CWSN in the mainstream of education, a fact noted in the National Policy on  Education, 1986.

 The National Policy on Education, 1986 (NPE, 1986) 

The objective to be achieved as stated in the NPE, 1986 is “to integrate the physically and mentally handicapped with general community as equal partners, to prepare them for normal growth and to enable them to face life with courage and confidence”.

Rehabilitation Council of  India Act  1992

The said act was passed by the Parliament in 1992, this act makes it mandatory for every special teacher to be registered by the council and lays down that every child with disability had the right to be taught by a qualified teacher. In fact it provided punishment for those teachers who engaged in teaching children with special needs without a valid registration.

Persons with Disabilities Act (Equal opportunity, protection  of  rights  and full  participation )1995 (PwD Act)

The Act stresses the need to provide free of cost  education to all children in an appropriate environment till they are 18 years old and further emphasize  their right to measures like:

• Transport facilities to the students with disabilities
• Architectural barrier free Environment.
• The supply of books, uniforms and Aids & Appliances.
• The grant of scholarship to students with disabilities.
• Setting up of appropriate forum for the redressal of grievances.
• Suitable modification in the examination system.

Restructuring of curriculum for the benefit of students with hearing impairment.

As mentioned in Section 2.1, in India disability is measured in five categories – sight, speech, hearing, locomotor, and mental – which excludes disabilities such as autism. In addition, a person has to be medically certified as having 40% or more of one of these disabilities in order to be counted and so qualified to request ‘benefits’.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, 2002 (SSA)

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is the government’s millennial Education For All (EFA) umbrella programme for all education schemes, which aims to universalize elementary education, the goals are that all children aged 6-14 including the enrolment of children with disabilities.

The right of children to free and compulsory education (amendment) bill, 2012

The Act stresses the need to provide and to have right to free and compulsory education neighborhood school till the completion of his or her elementary education and further emphasize confirming the zero rejection in school admission.

Why Inclusive Education?

There are a number of reasons why inclusive education is a better concept to adopt. The integrated education enhances the social acceptance of a child due to the following factors:

• Accessible to the disabled in all parts of the country.
• Use of existing infrastructure and resources possible with some modification.
• Least cost solution.
• The child has the advantage of being in an environment which shares with his/her peers.
• Congenial company instead of isolation – a natural social environment. Participation in the general community life.
• Stays with his/her family thus ensuring family bonding.

 The Inclusive Class may have the following Children:

• Regular Normal School Children,
• Children with Visual Impairment,
• Children with Hearing Impairment,
• Children with Locomotor Disability
• Children with Mental Retardation.

INGREDIENTS for Successful Inclusion

• INFRASTRUCTURE: Infrastructure should be such that it creates a barrier-free environment.
• NATIONAL LEVEL POLICIES: We have sufficient national level policies as discussed above, but the need of the hour is to have more policies to implement inclusive education

Techniques for Inclusive Education

• One to one peer support
• Collaborative teaming
• Group work
• Valuing difference of race, gender, ethnicity, disability, age or religion
• Lesson planning that will you support the needs of all learners
• Use of Visual e.g. photos, mind maps, maps and diagrams, pictures, film clips, digital cameras, wall displays
• Use of Auditory Techniques: e.g. use storytelling, talking, effective questions, problem solving, clear sequencing, music, singing
• Use of Kinaesthetic e.g. use movement, role play, artefacts, use the environment
• Scaffolding [practical materials] e.g. writing frames, pictograms, sounds, pictures, objects, artefacts, word lists, number lines etc.
• Appropriate use of augmented communication and Information and Communication Technology.

Capacity Building Techniques:

• Capacity building i.e., suitable personnel for the implementation process at all levels and in all areas are very much required.
• Teachers should master the skills for curriculum adaptation and they should be able to develop readiness skills in persons with disability.

Legislation Reforms:

PD Act 1995 – Emphasis is on appropriates educational, placement of children with disabilities based on their needs, which demands that a suitable system be developed to include children in regular schools.

• UNDERTAKING: Positive Attitude and Flexibility may be inculcated. Seamless Educational Provision may be provided.
• SENSITIZATION: Sensitization of Administrators, Parents, Principals, Teachers, Drivers and Ayahs should be taken as goal which needs to be achieved.
• INTIATIVES: Initiative of all those in the process of inclusive education can bring about the desired result.
• ORGANISATION: Every child can be part of inclusive education through careful planning and systematic organization. Children with Special Needs (CWSN) even educable children with Mental retardation and children with learning problems.

Approaches to Educational Technology

HARDWARE APPROACH:

The hardware approach is based on the application of engineering principles for developing electro-mechanical equipment for instructional purposes. Motion pictures, tape recorders, television, teaching machines, computers are called educational hardware.

Hardware approach mechanises the process of teaching so that teachers would be able to deal with more students with less expenditures in educating them.

Human knowledge has three aspects:

• Preservation,
• Transmission and
• Development.

The history of preservation of the knowledge is believed to exist since the printing machines started. The knowledge is preserved with these machines in the form of books which are shelved in the libraries, tape recorders and films.

The second aspect of human knowledge is its transmission. A teacher can impart knowledge himself to his pupils. Now a days, transmission of the knowledge is supported by machine like mike, radio and television. With these, thousands of pupils enjoy this home-delivery of such benefits.

The third aspect of human knowledge is its development. For this aspect, provisions are made for research work. In the research programmes, the main function is the collection and analysis of data. For this purpose, presently the researcher uses the electronic machines and computers. Hence, all the three aspects of knowledge allow the use of machines. In short, the teaching process has been mechanized. The mechanization of teaching process is termed as the Hardware Approach.

SOFTWARE APPROACH:

The software approach used the principles of psychology for building in the learners a complex repertory of knowledge or modifying his behaviour. It originates from behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerning psychology of learning. Psychology of learning provides solid technology for bringing desirable behavioural changes in the pupils and thus serves the cause of education of laying down definite instructional procedure, teaching behaviour and behaviour modification devices. The pioneering work in software approach was done by Skinner and other behaviourists. The programmes which such a technology produces are often called software. Software Approach is also termed as Instructional Technology or Teaching Technology or Behavioural Technology. Newspapers, books, magazines, educational games, flash cards may also form part of software. Software approach is characterised by task analysis, writing precise objectives, selection of appropriate learning strategies, immediate reinforcement of responses and constant evaluation.

Hence Software Approach is concerned with teaching objectives in behavioural terms, principles of teaching, methods of teaching, reinforcement of instructional system, feedback, reviews and evaluation. Software approach tries to develop all the three basic components of technology, i.e. Input, Process and Output.

HARDWARE & SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGIES

Hardware Technology	Software Technology
1. Hardware technology has its origin in physical sciences and applied engineering.	1. Software technology has its origin in behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerning psychology of learning
2. Here we are more concerned with the production and utilization of audio visual aid material and sophisticated instruments and mass media for helping teacher and learners in their task.	2. Here we try to make use of psychology of learning for the production and utilization of software techniques and materials in terms of learning material, teaching-learning strategies and other devices for smoothening the task of teaching learning.
3. It tries to adopt product-oriented approach. What is produced through software technology in the shape of teaching-learning material and strategy in being utilized by the hardware instruments and gadgets for effective teaching learning.	3. It tries to adopt a process-oriented technique or approach for the production of teaching-learning material and strategies. The material produced here is made available for being used by the hardware application.
4. It is based on the concept of service meaning hereby that it provides services in the field of education much in the same way as provided by telephone, electric heater, bulb etc. in the sphere of our day to day life. In this sense hardware technology clearly stands for making use of technology in education.	4. Software technology does not provide direct services to its users as provided by hardware technology and applied engineering. It helps in the production of software material being used by the hardware applications and gadgets for delivering their service to the users i.e. teachers and learners.
5. As examples of the appliances and gadgets being used in hardware technology service we can name radio, television, tape recorder, video, slides and film projectors, teaching machines and computer etc.	5. As examples of the material produced through software technology we can name, programmed learning material teaching learning strategy on psychology of learning (put into practice in the shape of charts, pictures, models, slides filmstrips, audio and video cassettes, software packages etc.)
6. Hardware technology needs the services of software technology for its use and functioning. It can’t go without the aid of software technology e.g. computer hardware in the shape of a machine like device is of no use if it does not make use of software services both for its operation as a machine and its multi-dimensional utilities. The use of application and utility software is in fact must for taking any service from the hardware technology of the computer.	6. Software technology proves most useful and productive in the case if it is assisted and made into use by the hardware applications and gadgets. However, it can go alone for delivering its services to the users without calling aid from the hardware technology i.e. you can make use of programmed learning material a graph a text, etc. directly for the individualized as well as group instructions.
7. Hardware technology has its mass appeal and utilization. It can contribute a lot in handing over the educational benefits to masses with greater case and economy.	7. Software technology has no such wide application and appeal to masses as found in the case of hardware appliances like radio, telephone, computer application, etc.
8. Hardware technology has resulted in improving the efficiency of educational, means and reducing the cost of education. A teacher may handle a big class with the help of hardware appliances like microphone, slide and film projectors etc.	8. Software technology also works for increasing the efficiency of the teachers as well as learning. However, it lags behind in the task of improving efficiency and reducing the cost of education.

SYSTEMS APPROACH:

System approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific objectives. Webster’s dictionary defines a system as “a regularly interacting or independent group of items forming a unified whole.” The characteristics of a system of may be explained with the help of an example – various parts of the digestive system may be called as components of digestive system. Every component of the digestive system contributes to as supports in functioning of the digestive system as a whole.

In the context of education, system is a unit as a whole incorporating all its aspects and parts, namely, pupils, teachers, curriculum, content and evaluation of instructional objectives. The teaching-learning process is viewed as communication and control taking place between the components of a system. In this case, the system is composed of a teacher, a student and a programme of instruction, all in a particular pattern of interaction.

The System Approach focuses first upon the learner and then course content, learning experiences and effective media and instructional strategies. Such a system incorporates within itself the capability of providing continuous self-correction and improvement. It is concerned with all elements of instruction including media, including hardware and software. Its purpose is to ensure that the components of the organic whole will be available with the proper characteristics at the proper time to contribute to the total system fulfilling the objectives.

In the systems approach to instruction, the teacher has to plan completely the utilization of selected resource material and the classroom activities. The teacher should have a good overall view of the subject, know his/her limitations, know all about his/her pupils and the individual differences in their learning capacities and plan accordingly. The system approach involves continuous evaluation of learning outcomes and utilization of knowledge gained by analysis of results of evaluation to suitably modify the plan of approach to achieve the stated objectives.

Major steps in the systems approach in education are:

1. Formulating of specific instructional objectives to be achieved and  defining instructional goals,
2. Deciding appropriate media to achieve these goals,
3. Defining learner characteristics and requirements,
4. Selecting appropriate methods suitable for effective learning to  take place,
5. Selecting appropriate learning experiences from available  alternatives,
6. Selecting appropriate materials and tools required,
7. Assigning appropriate personal roles for teachers, students and  supporting staff,
8. Implementing the programme,
9. Evaluating the outcome in terms of original objectives measured in  student performance and
10. Revising to improve efficiency of the system to improve students’  learning.

ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMS APPROACH

i. Systems approach helps to identify the suitability of the resource material to achieve the specific goal.

ii. Technological advance could be used to provide integration of machines, media and people for attaining the defined goal.

iii. It helps to assess the resource needs, their sources and facilities in relation to quantities, time and other factors.

iv. It permits an orderly introduction of components demonstrated to be required for systems success in terms of student learning.

v. It avoids rigidity in plan of action as continuous evaluation affords desired beneficial changes to be made.

LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEMS APPROACH

i. Resistance to change. Old ways are difficult to erase. There is always resistance to any new method or approach.

ii. Involves hard work. Systems approach requires hard and continuous work on the part of school personnel. Some are not prepared for the extra load.

iii. Lack of understanding. Teachers and administrators are still not familiar with systems approach. Though it has been successfully implemented industry, it has still to make headway in education.

Training Methods: On Job Training and off the Job Training Methods

By: Dr. Deepak Sharma
Large variety of methods of training are used in business. Even within one organization different methods are used for training different people. All the methods are divided into two classifications for:
A. On-the-job Training Methods:
1. Coaching

2. Mentoring
3. Job Rotation
4. Job Instruction Technology
5. Apprenticeship
6. Understudy
B. Off-the-Job Training Methods:
1. Lectures and Conferences
2. Vestibule Training
3. Simulation Exercises
4. Sensitivity Training
5. Transactional Training

A. On-the-job training Methods:

Under these methods new or inexperienced employees learn through observing peers or managers performing the job and trying to imitate their behaviour. These methods do not cost much and are less disruptive as employees are always on the job, training is given on the same machines and experience would be on already approved standards, and above all the trainee is learning while earning. Some of the commonly used methods are:

1. Coaching:

Coaching is a one-to-one training. It helps in quickly identifying the weak areas and tries to focus on them. It also offers the benefit of transferring theory learning to practice. The biggest problem is that it perpetrates the existing practices and styles. In India most of the scooter mechanics are trained only through this method.

2. Mentoring:

The focus in this training is on the development of attitude. It is used for managerial employees. Mentoring is always done by a senior inside person. It is also one-to- one interaction, like coaching.

3. Job Rotation:

It is the process of training employees by rotating them through a series of related jobs. Rotation not only makes a person well acquainted with different jobs, but it also alleviates boredom and allows to develop rapport with a number of people. Rotation must be logical.

4. Job Instructional Technique (JIT):

It is a Step by step (structured) on the job training method in which a suitable trainer (a) prepares a trainee with an overview of the job, its purpose, and the results desired, (b) demonstrates the task or the skill to the trainee, (c) allows the trainee to show the demonstration on his or her own, and (d) follows up to provide feedback and help. The trainees are presented the learning material in written or by learning machines through a series called ‘frames’. This method is a valuable tool for all educators (teachers and trainers). It helps us:
a. To deliver step-by-step instruction
b. To know when the learner has learned
c. To be due diligent (in many work-place environments)

5. Apprenticeship:

Apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of a skill. This method of training is in vogue in those trades, crafts and technical fields in which a long period is required for gaining proficiency. The trainees serve as apprentices to experts for long periods. They have to work in direct association with and also under the direct supervision of their masters.
The object of such training is to make the trainees all-round craftsmen. It is an expensive method of training. Also, there is no guarantee that the trained worker will continue to work in the same organisation after securing training. The apprentices are paid remuneration according the apprenticeship agreements.

6. Understudy:

In this method, a superior gives training to a subordinate as his understudy like an assistant to a manager or director (in a film). The subordinate learns through experience and observation by participating in handling day to day problems. Basic purpose is to prepare subordinate for assuming the full responsibilities and duties.

B. Off-the-job Training Methods:

Off-the-job training methods are conducted in separate from the job environment, study material is supplied, there is full concentration on learning rather than performing, and there is freedom of expression. Important methods include:

1. Lectures and Conferences:

Lectures and conferences are the traditional and direct method of instruction. Every training programme starts with lecture and conference. It’s a verbal presentation for a large audience. However, the lectures have to be motivating and creating interest among trainees. The speaker must have considerable depth in the subject. In the colleges and universities, lectures and seminars are the most common methods used for training.

2. Vestibule Training:

Vestibule Training is a term for near-the-job training, as it offers access to something new (learning). In vestibule training, the workers are trained in a prototype environment on specific jobs in a special part of the plant.
An attempt is made to create working condition similar to the actual workshop conditions. After training workers in such condition, the trained workers may be put on similar jobs in the actual workshop.
This enables the workers to secure training in the best methods to work and to get rid of initial nervousness. During the Second World War II, this method was used to train a large number of workers in a short period of time. It may also be used as a preliminary to on-the job training. Duration ranges from few days to few weeks. It prevents trainees to commit costly mistakes on the actual machines.

3. Simulation Exercises:

Simulation is any artificial environment exactly similar to the actual situation. There are four basic simulation techniques used for imparting training: management games, case study, role playing, and in-basket training.
(a) Management Games:
Properly designed games help to ingrain thinking habits, analytical, logical and reasoning capabilities, importance of team work, time management, to make decisions lacking complete information, communication and leadership capabilities. Use of management games can encourage novel, innovative mechanisms for coping with stress.
Management games orient a candidate with practical applicability of the subject. These games help to appreciate management concepts in a practical way. Different games are used for training general managers and the middle management and functional heads – executive Games and functional heads.
(b) Case Study:
Case studies are complex examples which give an insight into the context of a problem as well as illustrating the main point. Case Studies are trainee centered activities based on topics that demonstrate theoretical concepts in an applied setting.
A case study allows the application of theoretical concepts to be demonstrated, thus bridging the gap between theory and practice, encourage active learning, provides an opportunity for the development of key skills such as communication, group working and problem solving, and increases the trainees” enjoyment of the topic and hence their desire to learn.
(c) Role Playing:
Each trainee takes the role of a person affected by an issue and studies the impacts of the issues on human life and/or the effects of human activities on the world around us from the perspective of that person.
It emphasizes the “real- world” side of science and challenges students to deal with complex problems with no single “right” answer and to use a variety of skills beyond those employed in a typical research project.
In particular, role-playing presents the student a valuable opportunity to learn not just the course content, but other perspectives on it. The steps involved in role playing include defining objectives, choose context & roles, introducing the exercise, trainee preparation/research, the role-play, concluding discussion, and assessment. Types of role play may be multiple role play, single role play, role rotation, and spontaneous role play.
(d) In-basket training:
In-basket exercise, also known as in-tray training, consists of a set of business papers which may include e-mail SMSs, reports, memos, and other items. Now the trainer is asked to prioritise the decisions to be made immediately and the ones that can be delayed.

4. Sensitivity Training:

Sensitivity training is also known as laboratory or T-group training. This training is about making people understand about themselves and others reasonably, which is done by developing in them social sensitivity and behavioral flexibility. It is ability of an individual to sense what others feel and think from their own point of view.
It reveals information about his or her own personal qualities, concerns, emotional issues, and things that he or she has in common with other members of the group. It is the ability to behave suitably in light of understanding.
A group’s trainer refrains from acting as a group leader or lecturer, attempting instead to clarify the group processes using incidents as examples to clarify general points or provide feedback. The group action, overall, is the goal as well as the process.
Sensitivity training Program comprises three steps (see Figure 18.7)

5. Transactional Analysis:

It provides trainees with a realistic and useful method for analyzing and understanding the behavior of others. In every social interaction, there is a motivation provided by one person and a reaction to that motivation given by another person.
This motivation reaction relationship between two persons is known as a transaction. Transactional analysis can be done by the ego (system of feelings accompanied by a related set of behaviors states of an individual).
Child:
It is a collection of recordings in the brain of an individual of behaviors, attitudes, and impulses which come to him/her naturally from his/her own understanding as a child. The characteristics of this ego are to be spontaneous, intense, unconfident, reliant, probing, anxious, etc. Verbal clues that a person is operating from its child state are the use of words like “I guess”, “I suppose”, etc. and non verbal clues like, giggling, coyness, silent, attention seeking etc.
Parent:
It is a collection of recordings in the brain of an individual of behaviors, attitudes, and impulses imposed on her in her childhood from various sources such as, social, parents, friends, etc.
The characteristics of this ego are to be overprotective, isolated, rigid, bossy, etc. Verbal clues that a person is operating from its parent states are the use of words like, always, should, never, etc and non-verbal clues such as, raising eyebrows, pointing an accusing finger at somebody, etc.

Adult:
It is a collection of reality testing, rational behaviour, decision making, etc. A person in this ego state verifies, updates the reaction which she has received from the other two states. It is a shift from the taught and felt concepts to tested concepts.
All of us show behaviour from one ego state which is responded to by the other person from any of these three states.